1000009100010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δUnited Statesδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊∗United States of America∗⌋, usually referred to as the ⌊∗United States∗⌋, the ⌊∗U.S.∗⌋ or ⌊∗America∗⌋, is a ⌊>constitutional>⌋ ⌊>federal republic>⌋ comprising ⌊>fifty states>⌋ and a ⌊>federal district>⌋, as well as ⌊>several territories>⌋, or ⌊>insular area>⌋s, scattered around the ⌊>Caribbean>⌋ and Pacific.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>country>⌋ is situated mostly in central ⌊>North America>⌋, where its ⌊>forty-eight contiguous states>⌋ and ⌊>Washington, D.C.>⌋, the capital district, lie between the ⌊>Pacific>⌋ and ⌊>Atlantic Ocean>⌋s, bordered by ⌊>Canada>⌋ to the ⌊>north>⌋ and ⌊>Mexico>⌋ to the ⌊>south>⌋.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The state of ⌊>Alaska>⌋ is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to its east and ⌊>Russia>⌋ to the west across the ⌊>Bering Strait>⌋, and the state of ⌊>Hawaii>⌋ is an ⌊>archipelago>⌋ in the mid-Pacific.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with more than 300 million people, the United States is the ⌊>third or fourth>⌋ largest country by total area, and third largest by land area and ⌊>by population>⌋.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is one of the world's most ⌊>ethnically diverse>⌋ nations, the product of large-scale ⌊>immigration from many countries>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>U.S. economy>⌋ is the largest national economy in the world, with a nominal 2006 ⌊>gross domestic product>⌋ (GDP) of more than ⌊>US$>⌋13 trillion (over 25% of the world total based on ⌊>nominal GDP>⌋ and almost 20% by ⌊>purchasing power parity>⌋).@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The nation was founded by ⌊>thirteen colonies>⌋ of ⌊>Great Britain>⌋ located along the ⌊>Atlantic seaboard>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Proclaiming themselves "states," they issued the ⌊>Declaration of Independence>⌋ on ⌊>July 4>⌋, ⌊>1776>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rebellious states defeated Great Britain in the ⌊>American Revolutionary War>⌋, the first successful ⌊>colonial war of independence>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>federal convention>⌋ adopted the current ⌊>United States Constitution>⌋ on ⌊>September 17>⌋, ⌊>1787>⌋; its ratification the following year made the states part of a single republic.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Bill of Rights>⌋, comprising ten ⌊>constitutional amendments>⌋, was ratified in 1791.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the nineteenth century, the United States acquired land from ⌊>France>⌋, ⌊>Spain>⌋, the ⌊>United Kingdom>⌋, ⌊>Mexico>⌋, and ⌊>Russia>⌋, and ⌊>annexed>⌋ the ⌊>Republic of Texas>⌋ and the ⌊>Republic of Hawaii>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Disputes between the ⌊>agrarian South>⌋ and ⌊>industrial North>⌋ over ⌊>states' rights>⌋ and the expansion of the ⌊>institution of slavery>⌋ provoked the ⌊>American Civil War>⌋ of the 1860s.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The North's victory prevented a permanent split of the country and led to the ⌊>end of legal slavery>⌋ in the United States.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Spanish-American War>⌋ and ⌊>World War I>⌋ confirmed the nation's status as a military power.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1945, the United States emerged from ⌊>World War II>⌋ as the ⌊>first country with nuclear weapons>⌋, a permanent member of the ⌊>United Nations Security Council>⌋, and a founding member of ⌊>NATO>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the post–⌊>Cold War>⌋ era, the United States is the only remaining ⌊>superpower>⌋—accounting for ⌊>approximately 50% of global military spending>⌋—and a dominant economic, political, and cultural force in the world.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Etymology¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The term ⌊/⌊>America>⌋/⌋, for the lands of the ⌊>western hemisphere>⌋, was coined in 1507 after ⌊>Amerigo Vespucci>⌋, an Italian explorer and cartographer.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The full name of the country was first used officially in the ⌊>Declaration of Independence>⌋, which was the "unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America" adopted by the "Representatives of the united States of America" on ⌊>July 4>⌋, ⌊>1776>⌋.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The current name was finalized on ⌊>November 15>⌋, ⌊>1777>⌋, when the ⌊>Second Continental Congress>⌋ adopted the ⌊>Articles of Confederation>⌋, the first of which states, "The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'"@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common short forms and abbreviations of the United States of America include the ⌊/United States,/⌋ the ⌊/U.S./⌋, the ⌊/U.S.A./⌋, and ⌊/America/⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Colloquial names for the country include the ⌊/U.S. of A./⌋ and ⌊/the States/⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/⌊>Columbia>⌋/⌋, a once popular name for the Americas and the United States, was derived from ⌊>Christopher Columbus>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It appears in the name "⌊>District of Columbia>⌋".@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A female personification of Columbia appears on some official documents, including certain prints of ⌊>U.S. currency>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The standard way to refer to a citizen of the United States is as an ⌊/⌊>American>⌋./⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though ⌊/United States/⌋ is the formal adjective, ⌊/American/⌋ and ⌊/U.S./⌋ are the most common adjectives used to refer to the country ("American values," "U.S. forces").@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/American/⌋ is rarely used in English to refer to people not connected to the United States.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The phrase "the United States" was originally treated as plural—e.g, "the United States are"—including in the ⌊>Thirteenth Amendment>⌋ to the Constitution, ratified in 1865.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it became increasingly common to treat the name as singular—e.g., "the United States is"—after the end of the Civil War.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The singular form is now standard, while the plural form is retained in the set idiom "these United States."@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Geography¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is situated almost entirely in the ⌊>western hemisphere>⌋: the ⌊>contiguous United States>⌋ stretches from the ⌊>Pacific>⌋ on the west to the ⌊>Atlantic>⌋ on the east, with the ⌊>Gulf of Mexico>⌋ to the southeast, and bordered by ⌊>Canada>⌋ on the north and ⌊>Mexico>⌋ on the south.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Alaska>⌋ is the largest state in area; separated from the contiguous U.S. by Canada, it touches the Pacific on the south and ⌊>Arctic Ocean>⌋ on the north.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Hawaii>⌋ occupies an ⌊>archipelago>⌋ in the central Pacific, southwest of North America.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is the world's third or fourth ⌊>largest nation by total area>⌋, before or after ⌊>China>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ranking varies depending on (a) how two territories disputed by China and ⌊>India>⌋ are counted and (b) how the total size of the United States is calculated: the CIA ⌊/World Factbook/⌋ gives ⌊λ9826630 km² (3794083 sq mi)¦9826630¦km2¦sqmi¦0¦abbr=on¦Convertλ⌋, the United Nations Statistics Division gives ⌊λ9629091 km² (3717813 sq mi)¦9629091¦km2¦sqmi¦0¦abbr=on¦Convertλ⌋, and the ⌊/Encyclopedia Britannica/⌋ gives ⌊λ9522055 km² (3676486 sq mi)¦9522055¦km2¦sqmi¦0¦abbr=on¦Convertλ⌋.@@@@1@50@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Including only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, just ahead of Canada.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States also possesses several ⌊>insular territories>⌋ scattered around the ⌊>West Indies>⌋ (e.g., the ⌊>commonwealth>⌋ of ⌊>Puerto Rico>⌋) and the Pacific (e.g., ⌊>Guam>⌋).@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to ⌊>deciduous>⌋ forests and the rolling hills of the ⌊>Piedmont>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Appalachian Mountains>⌋ divide the eastern seaboard from the ⌊>Great Lakes>⌋ and the grasslands of the ⌊>Midwest>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Mississippi>⌋–⌊>Missouri River>⌋, the world's ⌊>fourth longest river system>⌋, runs mainly north-south through the heart of the country.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The flat, fertile prairie land of the ⌊>Great Plains>⌋ stretches to the west, interrupted by ⌊>a highland region>⌋ along its southeastern portion.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Rocky Mountains>⌋, at the western edge of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the continental United States, reaching altitudes higher than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in ⌊>Colorado>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The area to the west of the Rocky Mountains is dominated by the rocky ⌊>Great Basin>⌋ and deserts such as the ⌊>Mojave>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Sierra Nevada>⌋ range runs parallel to the Rockies, relatively close to the ⌊>Pacific coast>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At 20,320 feet (6,194 m), Alaska's ⌊>Mount McKinley>⌋ is the country's tallest peak.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Active ⌊>volcano>⌋es are common throughout the ⌊>Alexander>⌋ and ⌊>Aleutian Islands>⌋, and the entire state of Hawaii is built upon tropical volcanic islands.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>supervolcano>⌋ underlying ⌊>Yellowstone National Park>⌋ in the Rockies is the continent's largest volcanic feature.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of the United States' large size and wide range of geographic features, nearly every type of ⌊>climate>⌋ is represented.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The climate is ⌊>temperate>⌋ in most areas, ⌊>tropical>⌋ in Hawaii and southern ⌊>Florida>⌋, ⌊>polar>⌋ in Alaska, ⌊>semi-arid>⌋ in the Great Plains west of the ⌊>100th meridian>⌋, desert in the Southwest, ⌊>Mediterranean>⌋ in ⌊>Coastal California>⌋, and ⌊>arid>⌋ in the Great Basin.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Extreme weather is not uncommon—the states bordering the ⌊>Gulf of Mexico>⌋ are prone to ⌊>hurricane>⌋s, and most of the world's ⌊>tornado>⌋es occur within the continental United States, primarily in the Midwest's ⌊>Tornado Alley>⌋.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Environment¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@U.S. plant life is very diverse; the country has more than 17,000 identified native species of ⌊>flora>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More than 400 mammal, 700 bird, 500 reptile and amphibian, and 90,000 insect species have been documented.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Endangered Species Act>⌋ of 1973 protects threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the ⌊>U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The U.S. has fifty-eight ⌊>national parks>⌋ and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and ⌊>wilderness area>⌋s.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Altogether, the U.S. government regulates 28.8% of the country's total land area.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most such public land comprises protected parks and forestland, though some federal land is leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, or cattle ranching.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>energy policy of the United States>⌋ is widely debated; many call on the country to take a leading role in fighting ⌊>global warming>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is currently the second largest emitter, after the People's Republic of China, of ⌊>carbon dioxide>⌋ from the burning of ⌊>fossil fuel>⌋s.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Native Americans and European settlers¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>indigenous peoples>⌋ of the U.S. mainland, including ⌊>Alaska Natives>⌋, are thought to have ⌊>migrated from Asia>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They began arriving at least 12,000 and as many as 40,000 years ago.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several indigenous communities in the ⌊>pre-Columbian>⌋ era developed advanced agriculture, grand architecture, and state-level societies.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1492, Genoese explorer ⌊>Christopher Columbus>⌋, under contract to the Spanish crown, reached several Caribbean islands, making ⌊>first contact>⌋ with the indigenous population.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the years that followed, the majority of the indigenous American peoples were killed by epidemics of ⌊>Eurasia>⌋n diseases.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>April 2>⌋, ⌊>1513>⌋, Spanish ⌊>conquistador>⌋ ⌊>Juan Ponce de León>⌋ landed on what he called "⌊>La Florida>⌋"—the first documented European arrival on what would become the U.S. mainland.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of the colonies Spain established in the region, only ⌊>St. Augustine>⌋, founded in 1565, remains.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Later Spanish settlements in the present-day ⌊>southwestern United States>⌋ drew thousands through Mexico.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French ⌊>fur trade>⌋rs established outposts of ⌊>New France>⌋ around the ⌊>Great Lakes>⌋; France eventually claimed much of the North American interior as far south as the Gulf of Mexico.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first successful English settlements were the ⌊>Virginia Colony>⌋ in ⌊>Jamestown>⌋ in 1607 and the ⌊>Pilgrim>⌋s' ⌊>Plymouth Colony>⌋ in 1620.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 1628 chartering of the ⌊>Massachusetts Bay Colony>⌋ resulted in a wave of migration; by 1634, ⌊>New England>⌋ had been settled by some 10,000 ⌊>Puritan>⌋s.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Between the late 1610s and the American Revolution, an estimated 50,000 convicts were shipped to England's, and later Great Britain's, American colonies.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Beginning in 1614, the Dutch established settlements along the lower ⌊>Hudson River>⌋, including ⌊>New Amsterdam>⌋ on ⌊>Manhattan Island>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The small settlement of ⌊>New Sweden>⌋, founded along the ⌊>Delaware River>⌋ in 1638, was taken over by the Dutch in 1655.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By 1674, English forces had won the former Dutch colonies in the ⌊>Anglo–Dutch Wars>⌋; the province of ⌊>New Netherland>⌋ was renamed ⌊>New York>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many new immigrants, especially to ⌊>the South>⌋, were ⌊>indentured servants>⌋—some two-thirds of all Virginia immigrants between 1630 and 1680.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By the turn of the century, ⌊>African slaves>⌋ were becoming the primary source of bonded labor.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the 1729 division of ⌊>the Carolinas>⌋ and the 1732 colonization of ⌊>Georgia>⌋, the thirteen British colonies that would become the United States of America were established.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All had active local and colonial governments with elections open to most free men, with a growing devotion to the ancient ⌊>rights of Englishmen>⌋ and a sense of self government that stimulated support for ⌊>republicanism>⌋.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All had legalized the ⌊>African slave trade>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With high birth rates, low death rates, and steady immigration, the colonies doubled in population every twenty-five years.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Christian ⌊>revivalist>⌋ movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the ⌊>Great Awakening>⌋ fueled interest in both religion and religious liberty.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the ⌊>French and Indian War>⌋, British forces seized Canada from the French, but the ⌊>francophone>⌋ population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By 1770, those thirteen colonies had an increasingly ⌊>Anglicized>⌋ population of three million, approximately half that of Britain.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though ⌊>subject to British taxation>⌋, they were given no representation in the ⌊>Parliament of Great Britain>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Independence and expansion¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tensions between American colonials and the British during the ⌊>revolutionary period>⌋ of the 1760s and early 1770s led to the ⌊>American Revolutionary War>⌋, fought from 1775 through 1781.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>June 14>⌋, ⌊>1775>⌋, the ⌊>Continental Congress>⌋, convening in ⌊>Philadelphia>⌋, established a ⌊>Continental Army>⌋ under the command of ⌊>George Washington>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Proclaiming that "⌊>all men are created equal>⌋" and endowed with "certain ⌊>unalienable Rights>⌋," the Congress adopted the ⌊>Declaration of Independence>⌋ on ⌊>July 4>⌋, ⌊>1776>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Declaration, drafted largely by ⌊>Thomas Jefferson>⌋, pronounced the colonies ⌊>sovereign>⌋ "⌊>state>⌋s.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@" In 1777, the ⌊>Articles of Confederation>⌋ were adopted, uniting the states under a weak federal government that operated until 1788.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some 70,000–80,000 ⌊>loyalists>⌋ to the British Crown fled the rebellious states, many to ⌊>Nova Scotia>⌋ and the new ⌊>British holdings in Canada>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Native Americans, with divided allegiances, fought on both sides of ⌊>the war's western front>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009100990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the ⌊>defeat of the British army>⌋ by American forces who were ⌊>assisted by the French>⌋, Great Britain ⌊>recognized the sovereignty>⌋ of the thirteen states in 1783.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>constitutional convention>⌋ was organized in 1787 by those who wished to establish a strong national government with power over the states.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By June 1788, nine states had ratified the ⌊>United States Constitution>⌋, sufficient to establish the new government; the republic's ⌊>first Senate, House of Representatives>⌋, and ⌊>president>⌋—George Washington—took office in 1789.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>New York City>⌋ was the federal capital for a year, before the government relocated to Philadelphia.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1791, the states ratified the ⌊>Bill of Rights>⌋, ten amendments to the Constitution forbidding federal restriction of personal freedoms and guaranteeing a range of legal protections.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Attitudes toward ⌊>slavery>⌋ were shifting; a ⌊>clause in the Constitution>⌋ protected the African slave trade only until 1808.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Northern states abolished slavery between 1780 and 1804, leaving the ⌊>slave state>⌋s of the South as defenders of the "⌊>peculiar institution>⌋."@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1800, the federal government moved to the newly founded ⌊>Washington, D.C.>⌋ The ⌊>Second Great Awakening>⌋ made ⌊>evangelicalism>⌋ a force behind various social ⌊>reform movement>⌋s.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Americans' eagerness to ⌊>expand westward>⌋ began a cycle of ⌊>Indian Wars>⌋ that stretched to the end of the nineteenth century, as Native Americans were stripped of their land.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Louisiana Purchase>⌋ of French-claimed territory under President Thomas Jefferson in 1803 virtually doubled the nation's size.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>War of 1812>⌋, declared against Britain over various grievances and fought to a draw, strengthened American ⌊>nationalism>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A series of U.S. military incursions into Florida led ⌊>Spain to cede>⌋ it and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The country annexed the ⌊>Republic of Texas>⌋ in 1845.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The concept of ⌊>Manifest Destiny>⌋ was popularized during this time.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 1846 ⌊>Oregon Treaty>⌋ with Britain led to U.S. control of the present-day ⌊>American Northwest>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The U.S. victory in the ⌊>Mexican-American War>⌋ resulted in the 1848 ⌊>cession>⌋ of ⌊>California>⌋ and much of the present-day ⌊>American Southwest>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>California Gold Rush>⌋ of 1848–49 further spurred western migration.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>New railways>⌋ made relocation much less arduous for settlers and increased conflicts with Native Americans.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over a half-century, up to 40 million ⌊>American bison>⌋, commonly called buffalo, were slaughtered for skins and meat and to ease the railways' spread.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The loss of the bison, a primary economic resource for the ⌊>plains Indians>⌋, was an existential blow to many native cultures.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Civil War and industrialization¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Tensions>⌋ between slave and ⌊>free states>⌋ mounted with increasing disagreements over the relationship between the ⌊>state and federal governments>⌋ and ⌊>violent conflicts>⌋ over the expansion of slavery into new states. ⌊>Abraham Lincoln>⌋, candidate of the largely antislavery ⌊>Republican Party>⌋, was elected president in 1860.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Before he took office, seven slave states declared their ⌊>secession>⌋ from the United States, forming the ⌊>Confederate States of America>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The federal government maintained secession was illegal, and with the Confederate ⌊>attack upon Fort Sumter>⌋, the ⌊>American Civil War>⌋ began and four more slave states joined the Confederacy.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Union>⌋ ⌊>freed Confederate slaves>⌋ as its ⌊>army>⌋ advanced through the South.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Following the Union victory in 1865, three amendments to the U.S. Constitution ⌊>ensured freedom>⌋ for the nearly four million African Americans who had been slaves, ⌊>made them citizens>⌋, and ⌊>gave them voting rights>⌋.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The war and its resolution led to a substantial increase in ⌊>federal power>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the war, the ⌊>assassination of President Lincoln>⌋ ⌊>radicalized Republican>⌋ ⌊>Reconstruction>⌋ policies aimed at reintegrating and rebuilding the Southern states while ensuring the rights of the newly freed slaves.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The resolution of the disputed ⌊>1876 presidential election>⌋ by the ⌊>Compromise of 1877>⌋ ended Reconstruction; ⌊>Jim Crow laws>⌋ soon ⌊>disenfranchised many African Americans>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the North, urbanization and an unprecedented ⌊>influx of immigrants>⌋ hastened the ⌊>country's industrialization>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The wave of immigration, which lasted until 1929, provided labor for U.S. businesses and transformed American culture.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@High tariff protections, national infrastructure building, and new banking regulations encouraged industrial growth.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 1867 ⌊>Alaska purchase>⌋ from Russia completed the country's mainland expansion.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Wounded Knee massacre>⌋ in 1890 was the last major armed conflict of the ⌊>Indian Wars>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1893, the ⌊>indigenous monarchy>⌋ of the Pacific ⌊>Kingdom of Hawaii>⌋ was overthrown in a coup led by American residents; the archipelago was annexed by the United States in 1898.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Victory in the ⌊>Spanish-American War>⌋ that same year demonstrated that the United States was a ⌊>major world power>⌋ and resulted in the annexation of Puerto Rico and the ⌊>Philippines>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Philippines gained independence a half-century later; Puerto Rico remains a ⌊>commonwealth>⌋ of the United States.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=World War I, Great Depression, and World War II¦3=⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the outbreak of ⌊>World War I>⌋ in 1914, the United States remained neutral.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Americans sympathized with the British and French, although many citizens, mostly Irish and German, opposed intervention.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1917, the United States joined the ⌊>Allies>⌋, turning the tide against the ⌊>Central Powers>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Reluctant to be involved in European affairs, the Senate did not ratify the ⌊>Treaty of Versailles>⌋, which established the ⌊>League of Nations>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The country pursued a policy of ⌊>unilateralism>⌋, verging on ⌊>isolationism>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1920, the ⌊>women's rights>⌋ movement won passage of a ⌊>constitutional amendment>⌋ granting ⌊>women's suffrage>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Partly because of the service of many in the war, Native Americans gained ⌊>U.S. citizenship>⌋ in the ⌊>Indian Citizenship Act of 1924>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During ⌊>most of the 1920s>⌋, the United States enjoyed a period of unbalanced prosperity as farm profits fell while industrial profits grew.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A rise in debt and an inflated ⌊>stock market>⌋ culminated in the ⌊>1929 crash>⌋ that triggered the ⌊>Great Depression>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After his election as president in 1932, ⌊>Franklin D. Roosevelt>⌋ responded with the ⌊>New Deal>⌋, a range of policies increasing government intervention in the economy.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Dust Bowl>⌋ of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The nation would not fully recover from the economic depression until the industrial mobilization spurred by its entrance into ⌊>World War II>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States, effectively neutral during the war's early stages after the ⌊>Nazi invasion of Poland>⌋ in September 1939, began supplying ⌊>materiel>⌋ to the ⌊>Allies>⌋ in March 1941 through the ⌊>Lend-Lease>⌋ program.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>December 7>⌋, ⌊>1941>⌋, the United States joined the Allies against the ⌊>Axis powers>⌋ after a surprise ⌊>attack on Pearl Harbor>⌋ by ⌊>Japan>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@World War II cost far more money than any other war in American history, but it boosted the economy by providing capital investment and jobs, while bringing many women into the labor market.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Among the major combatants, the United States was the only nation to become richer—indeed, far richer—instead of poorer because of the war.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Allied conferences at ⌊>Bretton Woods>⌋ and ⌊>Yalta>⌋ outlined a new system of ⌊>international organization>⌋s that placed the ⌊>United States>⌋ and ⌊>Soviet Union>⌋ at the center of world affairs.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As ⌊>victory was achieved in Europe>⌋, a 1945 ⌊>international conference>⌋ held in ⌊>San Francisco>⌋ produced the ⌊>United Nations Charter>⌋, which became active after the war.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States, having ⌊>developed the first nuclear weapons>⌋, used them on the Japanese cities of ⌊>Hiroshima and Nagasaki>⌋ in August.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Japan surrendered>⌋ on ⌊>September 2>⌋, ending the war.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Cold War and civil rights¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States and Soviet Union jockeyed for power after World War II during the Cold War, dominating the military affairs of Europe through ⌊>NATO>⌋ and the ⌊>Warsaw Pact>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States promoted ⌊>liberal democracy>⌋ and ⌊>capitalism>⌋, while the Soviet Union promoted ⌊>communism>⌋ and a centrally ⌊>planned economy>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both the United States and the Soviet Union supported dictatorships, and both engaged in ⌊>proxy war>⌋s.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@United States troops fought ⌊>Communist Chinese>⌋ forces in the ⌊>Korean War>⌋ of 1950–53.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>House Un-American Activities Committee>⌋ pursued a series of investigations into suspected leftist subversion, while Senator ⌊>Joseph McCarthy>⌋ became the figurehead of anticommunist sentiment.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Soviet Union launched the first manned spacecraft in 1961, prompting U.S. efforts to raise proficiency in mathematics and science and President ⌊>John F. Kennedy>⌋'s call for the country to be first to land "a man on the moon," achieved in 1969.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Kennedy also faced a ⌊>tense nuclear showdown>⌋ with Soviet forces in Cuba.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Meanwhile, America experienced sustained economic expansion.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A growing ⌊>civil rights movement>⌋ headed by prominent African Americans, such as ⌊>Martin Luther King, Jr.>⌋, fought segregation and discrimination, leading to the abolition of ⌊>Jim Crow laws>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Following ⌊>Kennedy's assassination>⌋ in 1963, the ⌊>Civil Rights Act of 1964>⌋ was passed under President ⌊>Lyndon B. Johnson>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Johnson and his successor, ⌊>Richard Nixon>⌋, expanded a proxy war in Southeast Asia into the unsuccessful ⌊>Vietnam War>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result of the ⌊>Watergate scandal>⌋, in 1974 Nixon became the first U.S. president to ⌊>resign>⌋, rather than be ⌊>impeached>⌋ on charges including ⌊>obstruction of justice>⌋ and ⌊>abuse of power>⌋; he was ⌊>succeeded>⌋ by Vice President ⌊>Gerald Ford>⌋.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During the ⌊>Jimmy Carter>⌋ administration in the late 1970s, the U.S. economy experienced ⌊>stagflation>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The election of ⌊>Ronald Reagan>⌋ as president in 1980 marked a significant ⌊>rightward shift in American politics>⌋, reflected in major changes in ⌊>taxation and spending priorities>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the late 1980s and 1990s, the ⌊>Soviet Union's power diminished>⌋, leading to its collapse and effectively ending the Cold War.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Contemporary era¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The leadership role taken by the United States and its allies in the United Nations–sanctioned ⌊>Gulf War>⌋, under President ⌊>George H. W. Bush>⌋, and later the ⌊>Yugoslav wars>⌋ helped to preserve its position as the world's last remaining superpower.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The longest economic expansion in modern U.S. history—from March 1991 to March 2001—encompassed the administrations of Presidents ⌊>George H.W. Bush>⌋, ⌊>Bill Clinton>⌋, and ⌊>George W. Bush>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1998, Clinton was ⌊>impeached by the House>⌋ on charges relating to a ⌊>civil lawsuit>⌋ and a ⌊>sexual scandal>⌋, but he was acquitted by the Senate and remained in office.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 1990s also saw a rise in ⌊>Islamic Terrorism>⌋ against Americans from ⌊>al-Qaeda>⌋ and other groups, including an ⌊>attack on the World Trade Center in 1993>⌋, an ⌊>attack on U.S. forces in Somalia>⌋, the 1996 ⌊>Khobar Towers bombing>⌋, the ⌊>1998 United States embassy bombings>⌋ in Tanzania and Kenya, the ⌊>2000 millennium attack plots>⌋, and the ⌊>USS Cole bombing>⌋ in Yemen in October 2000.@@@@1@63@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Iraq>⌋, the regime of ⌊>Saddam Hussein>⌋ proved a continuing problem for the UN and its neighbors, prompting a variety of ⌊>UN sanctions>⌋, Anglo-American patrolling of ⌊>Iraqi no-fly zones>⌋, ⌊>Operation Desert Fox>⌋, and the ⌊>Iraq Liberation Act>⌋ of 1998 which called for the removal of the Hussein regime and its replacement by a democratic system.@@@@1@55@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>presidential election of 2000>⌋ was one of the closest in U.S. history and saw ⌊>George W. Bush>⌋ become President of the United States.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>On September 11, 2001>⌋, ⌊>al-Qaeda>⌋ terrorists struck the ⌊>World Trade Center>⌋ in New York City and ⌊>The Pentagon>⌋ near Washington, D.C., killing nearly three thousand people.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the aftermath, President Bush urged support from the international community for what was dubbed the ⌊>War on Terrorism>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In late 2001, U.S. forces launched ⌊>Operation Enduring Freedom>⌋ removing the ⌊>Taliban>⌋ government and ⌊>al-Qaeda>⌋ training camps.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Taliban insurgents continue to fight a ⌊>guerrilla war>⌋ against a NATO-led force.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Controversies arose regarding the conduct of the ⌊>War on Terror>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using language from the 1998 ⌊>Iraq Liberation Act>⌋ and the ⌊>Clinton Administration>⌋, in 2002 the Bush Administration began to ⌊>press>⌋ for ⌊>regime change>⌋ in Iraq.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With ⌊>broad bipartisan support in the U.S. Congress>⌋, Bush formed an international ⌊>Coalition of the Willing>⌋ and in March 2003 ordered ⌊>Operation Iraqi Freedom>⌋, removing ⌊>Saddam Hussein>⌋ from power.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although facing pressure to withdraw, the U.S.-led coalition maintains a ⌊>presence in Iraq>⌋ and continues to train and mentor a ⌊>new Iraqi military>⌋ as well as lead ⌊>economic and infrastructure development>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the upcoming ⌊>2008 presidential election>⌋, the ⌊>Republican Party>⌋ candidate, four-term Senator ⌊>John McCain>⌋ of ⌊>Arizona>⌋ – a former U.S. ⌊>prisoner of war>⌋ who served in the ⌊>Vietnam War>⌋ – will face the ⌊>Democratic Party>⌋ candidate, freshman Senator ⌊>Barack Obama>⌋ of ⌊>Illinois>⌋, the first African American to head a major political party's presidential ticket.@@@@1@54@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Government and elections¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is the world's oldest surviving ⌊>federation>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is a ⌊>constitutional republic>⌋, "in which ⌊>majority rule>⌋ is tempered by ⌊>minority rights>⌋ protected by ⌊>law>⌋."@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is fundamentally structured as a ⌊>representative democracy>⌋, though U.S. citizens residing in the territories are excluded from voting for federal officials.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The government is regulated by a system of ⌊>checks and balances>⌋ defined by the United States Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document and as a ⌊>social contract>⌋ for the people of the United States.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the ⌊>American federalist system>⌋, citizens are usually subject to ⌊>three levels of government>⌋, federal, state, and local; the ⌊>local government's>⌋ duties are commonly split between ⌊>county>⌋ and municipal governments.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a ⌊>plurality vote>⌋ of citizens by district.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is no ⌊>proportional representation>⌋ at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Federal and state judicial and ⌊>cabinet>⌋ officials are typically nominated by the executive branch and approved by the legislature, although some state judges and officials are elected by popular vote.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The federal government is composed of three branches:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009101990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Legislative>⌋: The ⌊>bicameral>⌋ ⌊>Congress>⌋, made up of the ⌊>Senate>⌋ and the ⌊>House of Representatives>⌋, makes ⌊>federal law>⌋, ⌊>declares war>⌋, approves treaties, has the ⌊>power of the purse>⌋, and has the power of ⌊>impeachment>⌋, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.#⌋@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Executive>⌋: The ⌊>president>⌋ is the ⌊>commander-in-chief>⌋ of the military, can veto ⌊>legislative bills>⌋ before they become law, and appoints the ⌊>Cabinet>⌋ and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.#⌋@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Judicial>⌋: The ⌊>Supreme Court>⌋ and lower ⌊>federal courts>⌋, whose judges are appointed by the president with Senate approval, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem ⌊>unconstitutional>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The House of Representatives has 435 members, each representing a ⌊>congressional district>⌋ for a two-year term.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@House seats are ⌊>apportioned>⌋ among the fifty states by population every tenth year.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of the ⌊>2000 census>⌋, seven states have the minimum of one representative, while California, the most populous state, has fifty-three.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each state has two senators, elected ⌊>at-large>⌋ to six-year terms; one third of Senate seats are up for election every second year.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The president serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office ⌊>no more than twice>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The president is ⌊>not elected by direct vote>⌋, but by an indirect ⌊>electoral college>⌋ system in which the determining votes are apportioned by state.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Supreme Court, led by the ⌊>Chief Justice of the United States>⌋, has nine members, who serve for life.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All laws and procedures of both state and federal governments are subject to review, and any law ruled in violation of the Constitution by the judicial branch is overturned.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original text of the Constitution establishes the structure and responsibilities of the federal government, the relationship between it and the individual states, and essential matters of military and economic authority.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Article One>⌋ protects the right to the "great writ" of ⌊>habeas corpus>⌋, and ⌊>Article Three>⌋ guarantees the ⌊>right to a jury trial>⌋ in all criminal cases.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Amendments to the Constitution>⌋ require the approval of three-fourths of the states. The Constitution has been amended twenty-seven times; the first ten amendments, which make up the ⌊>Bill of Rights>⌋, and the ⌊>Fourteenth Amendment>⌋ form the central basis of individual rights in the United States.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Parties and politics¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Politics in the United States have operated under a ⌊>two-party system>⌋ for virtually all of the country's history.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For elective offices at all levels, state-administered ⌊>primary election>⌋s are held to choose the major party nominees for subsequent ⌊>general election>⌋s.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the ⌊>general election of 1856>⌋, the two dominant parties have been the ⌊>Democratic Party>⌋, ⌊>founded in 1824>⌋ (though its ⌊>roots trace back to 1792>⌋), and the ⌊>Republican Party>⌋, ⌊>founded in 1854>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the Civil War, only one ⌊>third-party>⌋ presidential candidate—former president ⌊>Theodore Roosevelt>⌋, running as a ⌊>Progressive>⌋ in ⌊>1912>⌋—has won as much as 20% of the popular vote.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The incumbent president, Republican ⌊>George W. Bush>⌋, is the ⌊>43rd president in the country's history>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All U.S. presidents to date have been white men.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If Democrat ⌊>Barack Obama>⌋ wins the ⌊>forthcoming presidential election>⌋, he will become the first African-American president.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Following the ⌊>2006 midterm elections>⌋, the Democratic Party controls both the House and the Senate.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Every member of the U.S. Congress is a Democrat or a Republican except two ⌊>independent>⌋ members of the Senate—one a former Democratic incumbent, the other a self-described ⌊>socialist>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An ⌊>overwhelming majority>⌋ of state and local officials are also either Democrats or Republicans.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Within American ⌊>political culture>⌋, the Republican Party is considered "center-right" or ⌊>conservative>⌋ and the Democratic Party is considered "center-left" or ⌊>liberal>⌋, but members of both parties have a wide range of views.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a May 2008 poll, 44% of Americans described themselves as "conservative," 27% as "moderate," and 21% as "liberal."@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, that same month a plurality of adults, 41.7%, identified as Democrats, 31.6% as Republicans, and 26.6% as independents.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The states of the ⌊>Northeast>⌋ and ⌊>West Coast>⌋ and some of the ⌊>Great Lakes>⌋ states are relatively liberal-leaning—they are known in political parlance as "⌊>blue states>⌋."@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The "⌊>red states>⌋" of the ⌊>South>⌋ and the ⌊>Rocky Mountains>⌋ lean conservative.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=States¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is a ⌊>federal union>⌋ of fifty states.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original thirteen states were the successors of the ⌊>thirteen colonies>⌋ that rebelled against ⌊>British>⌋ rule.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the rest have been carved from territory obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The exceptions are ⌊>Vermont>⌋, ⌊>Texas>⌋, and ⌊>Hawaii>⌋; each was an independent republic before joining the union.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Early in the country's history, three states were created out of the territory of existing ones: ⌊>Kentucky>⌋ from ⌊>Virginia>⌋; ⌊>Tennessee>⌋ from ⌊>North Carolina>⌋; and ⌊>Maine>⌋ from ⌊>Massachusetts>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>West Virginia>⌋ broke away from Virginia during the ⌊>American Civil War>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most recent state—Hawaii—achieved statehood on ⌊>August 21>⌋, ⌊>1959>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>U.S. Supreme Court>⌋ ⌊>has ruled>⌋ that the states do not have the right to ⌊>secede>⌋ from the union.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The states compose the vast bulk of the U.S. land mass; the only other areas considered integral parts of the country are the District of Columbia, the ⌊>federal district>⌋ where the capital, Washington, is located; and ⌊>Palmyra Atoll>⌋, an uninhabited but ⌊>incorporated territory>⌋ in the Pacific Ocean.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States possesses five major territories with indigenous populations: ⌊>Puerto Rico>⌋ and the ⌊>United States Virgin Islands>⌋ in the Caribbean; and ⌊>American Samoa>⌋, ⌊>Guam>⌋, and the ⌊>Northern Mariana Islands>⌋ in the Pacific.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those born in the territories (except for American Samoa) possess ⌊>U.S. citizenship>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Foreign relations and military¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has vast economic, political, and military influence on a global scale, which makes its foreign policy a subject of great interest around the world.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Almost all countries have ⌊>embassies>⌋ in Washington, D.C., and many host ⌊>consulates>⌋ around the country.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise, nearly all nations host ⌊>American diplomatic missions>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, ⌊>Cuba>⌋, ⌊>Iran>⌋, ⌊>North Korea>⌋, ⌊>Bhutan>⌋, ⌊>Sudan>⌋, and the ⌊>Republic of China>⌋ (Taiwan) do not have formal diplomatic relations with the United States.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@American ⌊>isolationists>⌋ have often been at odds with internationalists, as anti-imperialists have been with promoters of ⌊>Manifest Destiny>⌋ and ⌊>American Empire>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@American ⌊>imperialism in the Philippines>⌋ drew sharp rebukes from ⌊>Mark Twain>⌋, philosopher ⌊>William James>⌋, and many others.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Later, President ⌊>Woodrow Wilson>⌋ played a key role in creating the ⌊>League of Nations>⌋, but the Senate prohibited American membership in it.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Isolationism became a thing of the past when the United States took a lead role in founding the United Nations, becoming a permanent member of the ⌊>Security Council>⌋ and host to the ⌊>United Nations Headquarters>⌋.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States enjoys a ⌊>special relationship>⌋ with the ⌊>United Kingdom>⌋ and strong ties with ⌊>Australia>⌋, ⌊>New Zealand>⌋, ⌊>Japan>⌋, ⌊>Israel>⌋, and fellow NATO members.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It also works closely with its neighbors through the ⌊>Organization of American States>⌋ and ⌊>free trade agreements>⌋ such as the trilateral ⌊>North American Free Trade Agreement>⌋ with ⌊>Canada>⌋ and ⌊>Mexico>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, the United States spent $27.3 billion on ⌊>official development assistance>⌋, the most in the world; however, as a share of ⌊>gross national income>⌋ (GNI), the U.S. contribution of 0.22% ranked twentieth of twenty-two donor states.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, nongovernmental sources such as private foundations, corporations, and educational and religious institutions donated $95.5 billion.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The total of $122.8 billion is again the most in the world and seventh in terms of GNI percentage.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces and appoints its leaders, the ⌊>secretary of defense>⌋ and the ⌊>Joint Chiefs of Staff>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>United States Department of Defense>⌋ administers the armed forces, including the ⌊>Army>⌋, the ⌊>Navy>⌋, the ⌊>Marine Corps>⌋, and the ⌊>Air Force>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Coast Guard>⌋ falls under the jurisdiction of the ⌊>Department of Homeland Security>⌋ in peacetime and the ⌊>Department of the Navy>⌋ in times of war.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, the military had 1.38 million personnel on active duty, along with several hundred thousand each in the ⌊>Reserves>⌋ and the ⌊>National Guard>⌋ for a total of ⌊>2.3 million troops>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Department of Defense also employs approximately 700,000 civilians, disregarding contractors.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Military service is voluntary, though ⌊>conscription>⌋ may occur in wartime through the ⌊>Selective Service System>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rapid deployment of American forces is facilitated by the Air Force's large fleet of transportation aircraft and aerial refueling tankers, the Navy's fleet of eleven active aircraft carriers, and ⌊>Marine Expeditionary Unit>⌋s at sea in the Navy's ⌊>Atlantic and>⌋ ⌊>Pacific fleets>⌋.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Outside of the American homeland, the U.S. military is ⌊>deployed to 770 bases and facilities>⌋, on every continent ⌊>except Antarctica>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of the extent of its global military presence, scholars describe the United States as maintaining an "empire of bases."@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Total U.S. military spending in 2006, over $528 billion, was 46% of the entire military spending in the world and greater than the next fourteen largest national military expenditures combined.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(In ⌊>purchasing power parity>⌋ terms, it was larger than the next six such expenditures combined.)@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The per capita spending of $1,756 was approximately ten times the world average.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At 4.06% of GDP, U.S. military spending is ranked 27th out of 172 nations.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The proposed base ⌊>Department of Defense budget>⌋ for 2009, $515.4 billion, is a 7% increase over 2008 and a nearly 74% increase over 2001.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The estimated total cost of the ⌊>Iraq War>⌋ to the United States through 2016 is $2.267 trillion.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of ⌊>June 6>⌋, ⌊>2008>⌋, the United States had suffered 4,092 military fatalities during the war and nearly 30,000 wounded.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Economy¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has a ⌊>capitalist>⌋ ⌊>mixed economy>⌋, which is fueled by abundant ⌊>natural resource>⌋s, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the ⌊>International Monetary Fund>⌋, the United States GDP of more than $13 trillion constitutes over 25.5% of the ⌊>gross world product>⌋ at market exchange rates and over 19% of the gross world product at ⌊>purchasing power parity>⌋ (PPP).@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The largest national GDP in the world, it was slightly less than the combined GDP of the ⌊>European Union>⌋ at PPP in 2006.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The country ranks eighth in the world in ⌊>nominal GDP per capita>⌋ and fourth in ⌊>GDP per capita at PPP>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is the largest importer of goods and third largest exporter, though ⌊>exports per capita>⌋ are relatively low.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The leading export commodity is electrical machinery, while vehicles constitute the leading import.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The private sector constitutes the bulk of the economy, with government activity accounting for 12.4% of GDP.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The economy is ⌊>postindustrial>⌋, with the ⌊>service sector>⌋ contributing 67.8% of GDP.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The leading business field by gross business receipts is wholesale and retail trade; by net income it is finance and insurance.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States remains an industrial power, with chemical products the leading manufacturing field.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is the third largest producer of oil in the world.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as well as liquid natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, and salt.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While ⌊>agriculture>⌋ accounts for just under 1% of GDP, the United States is the world's top producer of corn and soybeans.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The country's leading cash crop is ⌊>marijuana>⌋, despite federal laws making its ⌊>cultivation and sale illegal>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>New York Stock Exchange>⌋ is the world's largest by dollar volume.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Coca-Cola>⌋ and ⌊>McDonald's>⌋ are the two most recognized brands in the world.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, 155 million persons were employed with earnings, of whom 80% worked in full-time jobs.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The majority, 79%, were employed in the service sector.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With approximately 15.5 million people, health care and social assistance is the leading field of employment.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@About 12% of American workers are ⌊>unionized>⌋, compared to 30% in Western Europe.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The U.S. ranks number one in the ease of hiring and firing workers, according to the World Bank.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Between 1973 and 2003, a year's work for the average American grew by 199 hours.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Partly as a result, the United States maintains the highest labor productivity in the world.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it no longer leads the world in productivity per hour as it did from the 1950s through the early 1990s; workers in ⌊>Norway>⌋, France, ⌊>Belgium>⌋, and ⌊>Luxembourg>⌋ are now more productive per hour.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States ranks third in the ⌊>World Bank's>⌋ ⌊>Ease of Doing Business Index>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Compared to Europe, U.S. property and corporate ⌊>income taxes>⌋ are generally higher, while labor and, particularly, consumption taxes are lower.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009102990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Income and human development¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the ⌊>Census Bureau>⌋, the pretax ⌊>median household income>⌋ in 2006 was $48,201.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The two-year average ranged from $66,752 in ⌊>New Jersey>⌋ to $34,343 in ⌊>Mississippi>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using ⌊>purchasing power parity>⌋ exchange rates, the overall median is similar to the most affluent cluster of ⌊>developed nations>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After having declined sharply throughout the mid 20⌊^th^⌋ century, ⌊>poverty rates>⌋ have plateaued since the early 1970s, with roughly 12.3% or 13.3% of Americans below the federally designated ⌊>poverty line>⌋ in any given year.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Owing to lackluster expansion since the late 1970s, the U.S. welfare state is now among the most austere in the developed world, reducing ⌊>relative poverty>⌋ by roughly 30% and ⌊>absolute poverty>⌋ by roughly 40%; considerably less than the mean for rich nations.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the American welfare state preforms well in reducing poverty among the elderly, from an estimated 50% to 10%, it lacks extensive programs geared towards the well-being of the young.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A 2007 ⌊>UNICEF>⌋ study of children's well-being in twenty-one industrialized nations, covering a broad range of factors, ranked the U.S. next to last.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Between 1947 and 1979, ⌊>real median income>⌋ rose by over 80% for all classes, more so for the poor than the rich.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While ⌊>median household income>⌋ has increased for all classes since 1980, largely owing to more dual earner households, the closing of the gender gap and longer work hours, growth has been slower and strongly titled towards the very top (see graph).@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result the share of income of the top 1% has doubbled since 1979, leaving the U.S. with the highest level of income inequality among developed nations.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While some economists do not see inequality as a considerable problem, most see it as a problem requiring government action.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Wealth is highly concentrated: The richest 10% of the adult population possesses 69.8% of the country's household wealth, the second-highest share of any democratic developed nation.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The top 1% possesses 33.4% of net wealth.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Science and technology¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has been a leader in scientific research and technological innovation since the late nineteenth century.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1876, ⌊>Alexander Graham Bell>⌋ was awarded the first U.S. ⌊>patent for the telephone>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>laboratory>⌋ of ⌊>Thomas Edison>⌋ developed the ⌊>phonograph>⌋, the first ⌊>long-lasting light bulb>⌋, and the first viable ⌊>movie camera>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the early twentieth century, the automobile companies of ⌊>Ransom E. Olds>⌋ and ⌊>Henry Ford>⌋ pioneered ⌊>assembly line>⌋ manufacturing.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Wright brothers>⌋, in 1903, made what is recognized as the "⌊>first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight>⌋."@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rise of ⌊>Nazism>⌋ in the 1930s led many important European scientists, including ⌊>Albert Einstein>⌋ and ⌊>Enrico Fermi>⌋, to immigrate to the United States.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During World War II, the U.S.-based ⌊>Manhattan Project>⌋ developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the ⌊>Atomic Age>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Space Race>⌋ produced rapid advances in rocketry, ⌊>materials science>⌋, and computers.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States largely developed the ⌊>ARPANET>⌋ and its successor, the ⌊>Internet>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today, the bulk of ⌊>research and development>⌋ funding, 64%, comes from the private sector.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States leads the world in scientific research papers and ⌊>impact factor>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Americans enjoy high levels of access to technological consumer goods, and almost half of U.S. households have ⌊>broadband Internet service>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The country is the primary developer and grower of ⌊>genetically modified food>⌋; more than half of the world's land planted with biotech crops is in the United States.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Transportation¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of 2003, there were 759 automobiles per 1,000 Americans, compared to 472 per 1,000 inhabitants of the European Union the following year.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Approximately 39% of ⌊>personal vehicles>⌋ are vans, ⌊>SUVs>⌋, or light trucks.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The average American adult (accounting for all drivers and nondrivers) spends 55 minutes behind the wheel every day, driving ⌊λ29 miles (47 km)¦29¦mi¦km¦0¦Convertλ⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The U.S. intercity passenger rail system is relatively weak.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Only 9% of total U.S. work trips employ ⌊>mass transit>⌋, compared to 38.8% in Europe.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Bicycle usage is minimal, well below European levels.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The civil airline industry is entirely privatized, while most major airports are publicly owned.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The five largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are all American; ⌊>American Airlines>⌋ is number one.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of the world's thirty busiest passenger airports, sixteen are in the United States, including the busiest, ⌊>Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport>⌋ (ATL).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Energy¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States energy market is 29,000 ⌊>terawatt>⌋ hours per year.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Energy consumption per capita>⌋ is 7.8 tons of oil equivalent per year, compared to Germany's 4.2 tons and Canada's 8.3 tons.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, 40% of the nation's energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 22% from natural gas.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The remainder was supplied by nuclear power and various ⌊>renewable energy>⌋ sources.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is the world's largest consumer of petroleum.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For decades, nuclear power has played a limited role relative to many other developed countries.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recently, applications for new nuclear plants have been filed.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Demographics¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of 2008, the United States population was estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau to be 304,516,000.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The U.S. population included an estimated 12 million ⌊>unauthorized migrants>⌋, of whom an estimated 1 million were uncounted by the Census Bureau.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The overall ⌊>growth rate>⌋ is 0.89%, compared to 0.16% in the European Union.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>birth rate>⌋ of 14.16 per 1,000 is 30% below the world average, while higher than any European country except for ⌊>Albania>⌋ and ⌊>Ireland>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, 1.27 million immigrants were granted ⌊>legal residence>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Mexico has been the leading source of new U.S. residents for over two decades; since 1998, China, India, and the Philippines have been in the top four sending countries every year.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is the only industrialized nation in which large population increases are projected.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has a very ⌊>diverse population>⌋—thirty-one ⌊>ancestry groups>⌋ have more than a million members.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Whites>⌋ are the largest ⌊>racial group>⌋, with ⌊>German American>⌋s, ⌊>Irish American>⌋s, and ⌊>English American>⌋s constituting three of the country's four largest ancestry groups.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>African American>⌋s constitute the nation's largest ⌊>racial minority>⌋ and third largest ancestry group.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Asian American>⌋s are the country's second largest racial minority; the two largest Asian American ancestry groups are ⌊>Chinese>⌋ and ⌊>Filipino>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, the U.S. population included an estimated 4.5 million people with some ⌊>American Indian>⌋ or ⌊>Alaskan native>⌋ ancestry (2.9 million exclusively of such ancestry) and over 1 million with some ⌊>native Hawaiian>⌋ or ⌊>Pacific island>⌋ ancestry (0.5 million exclusively).@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The population growth of ⌊>Hispanic and Latino Americans>⌋ has been a major ⌊>demographic trend>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Approximately 44 million Americans are of Hispanic descent, with about 64% possessing ⌊>Mexican>⌋ ancestry.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Between 2000 and 2006, the country's Hispanic population increased 25.5% while the non-Hispanic population rose just 3.5%.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Much of this growth is from immigration; as of 2004, 12% of the U.S. population was foreign-born, over half that number from ⌊>Latin America>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Fertility is also a factor; the average Hispanic woman gives birth to three children in her lifetime.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The comparable fertility rate is 2.2 for non-Hispanic black women and 1.8 for non-Hispanic white women (below the ⌊>replacement rate>⌋ of 2.1).@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hispanics and Latinos accounted for nearly half of the national population growth of 2.9 million between July 2005 and July 2006.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@About 83% of the population lives in one of the country's 363 ⌊>metropolitan areas>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, 254 ⌊>incorporated place>⌋s in the United States had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than 1 million residents, and four ⌊>global cities>⌋ had over 2 million (⌊>New York City>⌋, ⌊>Los Angeles>⌋, ⌊>Chicago>⌋, and ⌊>Houston>⌋).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has fifty ⌊>metropolitan areas>⌋ with populations greater than 1 million.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of the fifty fastest-growing metro areas, twenty-three are in the West and twenty-five in the South.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Among the country's twenty most populous metro areas, those of ⌊>Dallas>⌋ (the fourth largest), Houston (sixth), and ⌊>Atlanta>⌋ (ninth) saw the largest numerical gains between 2000 and 2006, while that of ⌊>Phoenix>⌋ (thirteenth) grew the largest in percentage terms.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Language¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>English>⌋ is the de facto ⌊>national language>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although there is no ⌊>official language>⌋ at the federal level, some laws—such as ⌊>U.S. naturalization requirements>⌋—standardize English.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2003, about 215 million, or 82% of the population aged five years and older, spoke only English at home.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Spanish>⌋, spoken by over 10% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the most widely taught ⌊>foreign language>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some Americans advocate making English the country's official language, as it is in at least twenty-eight states.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both ⌊>Hawaiian>⌋ and English are official languages in Hawaii by state law.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While neither has an official language, ⌊>New Mexico>⌋ has laws providing for the use of both English and Spanish, as ⌊>Louisiana>⌋ does for English and ⌊>French>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other states, such as ⌊>California>⌋, mandate the publication of Spanish versions of certain government documents including court forms.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several insular territories grant official recognition to their native languages, along with English: ⌊>Samoan>⌋ and ⌊>Chamorro>⌋ are recognized by Samoa and Guam, respectively; ⌊>Carolinian>⌋ and Chamorro are recognized by the Northern Mariana Islands; Spanish is an official language of Puerto Rico.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Religion¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States government does not audit Americans' religious beliefs.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a private survey conducted in 2001, 76.5% of American adults identified themselves as ⌊>Christian>⌋, down from 86.4% in 1990.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Protestant>⌋ denominations accounted for 52% of adult Americans, while ⌊>Roman Catholics>⌋, at 24.5%, were the largest individual denomination.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A different study describes white ⌊>evangelicals>⌋, 26.3% of the population, as the country's largest religious cohort; evangelicals of all races are estimated at 30–35%.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The total reporting non-Christian religions in 2001 was 3.7%, up from 3.3% in 1990.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The leading non-Christian faiths were ⌊>Judaism>⌋ (1.4%), ⌊>Islam>⌋ (0.5%), ⌊>Buddhism>⌋ (0.5%), ⌊>Hinduism>⌋ (0.4%), and ⌊>Unitarian Universalism>⌋ (0.3%).@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Between 1990 and 2001, the number of Muslims and Buddhists more than doubled.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From 8.2% in 1990, 14.1% in 2001 described themselves as ⌊>agnostic>⌋, ⌊>atheist>⌋, or simply having ⌊>no religion>⌋, still significantly less than in other postindustrial countries such as Britain (2005:44%) and ⌊>Sweden>⌋ (2001:69%, 2005:85%).@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Education¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@American ⌊>public education>⌋ is operated by state and local governments, regulated by the ⌊>United States Department of Education>⌋ through restrictions on federal grants.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Children are required in most states to attend school from the age of six or seven (generally, ⌊>kindergarten>⌋ or ⌊>first grade>⌋) until they turn eighteen (generally bringing them through ⌊>12th grade>⌋, the end of ⌊>high school>⌋); some states allow students to leave school at sixteen or seventeen.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@About 12% of children are enrolled in ⌊>parochial>⌋ or ⌊>nonsectarian>⌋ ⌊>private school>⌋s.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Just over 2% of children are ⌊>homeschooled>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has many competitive private and public ⌊>institutions of higher education>⌋, as well as local ⌊>community college>⌋s of varying quality with open admission policies.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of Americans twenty-five and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a ⌊>bachelor's degree>⌋, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The basic ⌊>literacy rate>⌋ is approximately 99%.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United Nations assigns the United States an Education Index of 0.97, tying it for twelfth-best in the world.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Health¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009103990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The American ⌊>life expectancy>⌋ of 77.8 years at birth is a year shorter than the overall figure in Western Europe, and three to four years lower than that of ⌊>Norway>⌋, ⌊>Switzerland>⌋, and ⌊>Canada>⌋.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over the past two decades, the country's rank in life expectancy has dropped from 11th to 42nd place in the world.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>infant mortality rate>⌋ of 6.37 per thousand likewise places the United States 42nd out of 221 countries, behind all of Western Europe.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@U.S. cancer survival rates are the highest in the world.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Approximately one-third of the adult population is ⌊>obese>⌋ and an additional third is overweight; the obesity rate, the highest in the industrialized world, has more than doubled in the last quarter-century.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Obesity-related ⌊>type 2 diabetes>⌋ is considered ⌊>epidemic>⌋ by healthcare professionals.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The U.S. adolescent pregnancy rate, 79.8 per 1,000 women, is nearly four times that of France and five times that of Germany.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Abortion in the United States>⌋, legal on demand, is a source of great political controversy.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many states ban public funding of the procedure and have laws to restrict late-term abortions, require parental notification for minors, and mandate a waiting period prior to treatment.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the incidence of abortion is in decline, the U.S. abortion ratio of 241 per 1,000 live births and abortion rate of 15 per 1,000 women aged 15–44 remain higher than those of most Western nations.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States healthcare system far outspends any other nation's, measured in both per capita spending and percentage of GDP.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike most developed countries, the U.S. healthcare system is not ⌊>universal>⌋, and relies on a higher proportion of private funding.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, private insurance paid for 36% of personal health expenditure, private out-of-pocket payments covered 15%, and federal, state, and local governments paid for 44%.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>World Health Organization>⌋ ranked the U.S. healthcare system in 2000 as first in responsiveness, but 37th in overall performance.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is a leader in medical innovation.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, the U.S. nonindustrial sector spent three times as much as Europe per capita on biomedical research.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Medical bills are the most common reason for personal ⌊>bankruptcy>⌋ in the United States.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, 46.6 million Americans, or 15.9% of the population, were uninsured, 5.4 million more than in 2001.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The primary cause of the decline in coverage is the drop in the number of Americans with employer-sponsored health insurance, which fell from 62.6% in 2001 to 59.5% in 2005.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Approximately one third of the uninsured lived in households with annual incomes greater than $50,000, with half of those having an income over $75,000.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another third were eligible but not registered for public health insurance.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, Massachusetts became the first state to mandate health insurance; California is considering similar legislation.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Crime and punishment¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Law enforcement in the United States is primarily the responsibility of local police and ⌊>sheriff>⌋'s departments, with ⌊>state police>⌋ providing broader services.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Federal agencies such as the ⌊>Federal Bureau of Investigation>⌋ (FBI) and the ⌊>U.S. Marshals Service>⌋ have specialized duties.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the federal level and in almost every state, jurisprudence operates on a ⌊>common law>⌋ system.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@State courts conduct most criminal trials; ⌊>federal courts>⌋ handle certain designated crimes as well as ⌊>appeal>⌋s from state systems.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Among ⌊>developed nations>⌋, the United States has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of ⌊>gun violence>⌋ and homicide.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, there were 5.7 murders per 100,000 persons, three times the rate in neighboring Canada.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The U.S. homicide rate, which decreased by 42% between 1991 and 1999, has been roughly steady since.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some scholars have associated the high rate of homicide with the country's high rates of ⌊>gun ownership>⌋, in turn associated with ⌊>U.S. gun laws>⌋ which are very permissive compared to those of other developed countries.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has the highest documented ⌊>incarceration>⌋ rate and total prison population in the world and by far the highest figures among democratic, developed nations.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the start of 2008, more than 2.3 million people were held in American prisons or jails, more than one in every 100 adults.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The current rate is almost seven times the 1980 figure.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@African American males are jailed at over six times the rate of white males and three times the rate of Hispanic males.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the latest comparable data, from 2006, the U.S. incarceration rate was more than three times the figure in Poland, the ⌊>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development>⌋ (OECD) country with the next highest rate.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The country's extraordinary rate of incarceration is largely caused by changes in ⌊>sentencing>⌋ and ⌊>drug>⌋ policies.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though it has been abolished in most Western nations, ⌊>capital punishment>⌋ is sanctioned in the United States for certain federal and military crimes, and in thirty-seven states.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since 1976, when the U.S. Supreme Court ⌊>reinstated the death penalty>⌋ after a four-year moratorium, there have been over 1,000 executions in the United States.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, the country had the sixth highest number of executions in the world, following China, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, and Sudan.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In December 2007, New Jersey became the first state to abolish the death penalty since the 1976 Supreme Court decision.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Culture¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States is a ⌊>multicultural>⌋ nation, home to a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is no "American" ethnicity; aside from the now relatively small ⌊>Native American>⌋ population, nearly all Americans or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The culture held in common by the majority of Americans is referred to as mainstream American culture, a ⌊>Western culture>⌋ largely derived from the traditions of ⌊>Western Europe>⌋an migrants, beginning with the early ⌊>English>⌋ and ⌊>Dutch>⌋ settlers.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>German>⌋, ⌊>Irish>⌋, and ⌊>Scottish>⌋ cultures have also been very influential.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Certain cultural attributes of ⌊>Mandé>⌋ and ⌊>Wolof>⌋ slaves from West Africa were adopted by the American mainstream; based more on the traditions of Central African ⌊>Bantu>⌋ slaves, a distinct ⌊>African American culture>⌋ developed that would eventually have a major effect on the mainstream as well.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Westward expansion integrated the ⌊>Creoles>⌋ and ⌊>Cajun>⌋s of Louisiana and the ⌊>Hispanos>⌋ of the Southwest and brought close contact with the ⌊>culture of Mexico>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Large-scale immigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries from ⌊>Southern>⌋ and ⌊>Eastern Europe>⌋ introduced many new cultural elements.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More recent immigration from ⌊>Asia>⌋ and especially ⌊>Latin America>⌋ has had broad impact.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The resulting mix of cultures may be characterized as a homogeneous ⌊>melting pot>⌋ or as a pluralistic ⌊>salad bowl>⌋ in which immigrants and their descendants retain distinctive cultural characteristics.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While American culture maintains that the United States is a ⌊>classless society>⌋, economists and sociologists have identified cultural differences between the country's social classes, affecting ⌊>socialization>⌋, language, and values.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The American ⌊>middle>⌋ and ⌊>professional class>⌋ has been the source of many contemporary social trends such as ⌊>feminism>⌋, ⌊>environmentalism>⌋, and ⌊>multiculturalism>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Americans' self-images, social viewpoints, and cultural expectations are associated with their occupations to an unusually close degree.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While Americans tend greatly to value socioeconomic achievement, being ⌊>ordinary or average>⌋ is generally seen as a positive attribute.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though the ⌊>American Dream>⌋, or the perception that Americans enjoy high ⌊>social mobility>⌋, played a key role in attracting immigrants, particularly in the late 1800s, some analysts find that the United States has less social mobility than Western Europe and Canada.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Women, many of whom were formerly more limited to domestic roles, now mostly work outside the home and receive a majority of ⌊>bachelor's degrees>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The changing role of women has also changed ⌊>the American family>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, no household arrangement defined more than 30% of households; married childless couples were most common, at 28%.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The extension of marital rights to homosexual persons is an issue of debate; several more liberal states permit ⌊>civil union>⌋s in lieu of marriage.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2003, the ⌊>Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court>⌋ ⌊>ruled>⌋ that state's ⌊>ban on same-sex marriage>⌋ unconstitutional; the ⌊>Supreme Court of California>⌋ ⌊>ruled>⌋ ⌊>similarly>⌋ in 2008.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Forty-three states still legally restrict marriage to the traditional man-and-woman model.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Popular media¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1878, ⌊>Eadweard Muybridge>⌋ demonstrated the power of photography to capture motion.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1894, the world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City, using ⌊>Thomas Edison>⌋'s ⌊>Kinetoscope>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The next year saw the first commercial screening of a projected film, also in New York, and the United States was in the forefront of ⌊>sound film>⌋'s development in the following decades.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the early twentieth century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around ⌊>Hollywood, California>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Director ⌊>D. W. Griffith>⌋ was central to the development of ⌊>film grammar>⌋ and ⌊>Orson Welles>⌋'s ⌊/⌊>Citizen Kane>⌋/⌋ (1941) is frequently cited in critics' polls as the greatest film of all time.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@American screen actors like ⌊>John Wayne>⌋ and ⌊>Marilyn Monroe>⌋ have become iconic figures, while producer/entrepreneur ⌊>Walt Disney>⌋ was a leader in both ⌊>animated film>⌋ and movie ⌊>merchandising>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>major film studio>⌋s of Hollywood are the primary source of the most commercially successful movies in the world, such as ⌊/⌊>Star Wars>⌋/⌋ (1977) and ⌊/⌊>Titanic>⌋/⌋ (1997), and the products of Hollywood today dominate the global film industry.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Americans are the heaviest television viewers in the world, and the average time spent in front of the screen continues to rise, hitting five hours a day in 2006.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The four major broadcast networks are all commercial entities.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercialized, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Aside from ⌊>web portal>⌋s and ⌊>web search engine>⌋s, the most popular websites are ⌊>eBay>⌋, ⌊>MySpace>⌋, ⌊>Amazon.com>⌋, ⌊>The New York Times>⌋, and ⌊>Apple>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Twelve million Americans keep a blog.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rhythmic and lyrical styles of ⌊>African American music>⌋ have deeply influenced ⌊>American music>⌋ at large, distinguishing it from European traditions.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Elements from ⌊>folk>⌋ idioms such as the ⌊>blues>⌋ and what is now known as ⌊>old-time music>⌋ were adopted and transformed into ⌊>popular genres>⌋ with global audiences.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Jazz>⌋ was developed by innovators such as ⌊>Louis Armstrong>⌋ and ⌊>Duke Ellington>⌋ early in the twentieth century.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Country music>⌋, ⌊>rhythm and blues>⌋, and ⌊>rock and roll>⌋ emerged between the 1920s and 1950s.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1960s, ⌊>Bob Dylan>⌋ emerged from the ⌊>folk revival>⌋ to become one of America's greatest songwriters and ⌊>James Brown>⌋ led the development of ⌊>funk>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More recent American creations include ⌊>hip hop>⌋ and ⌊>house music>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@American pop stars such as ⌊>Elvis Presley>⌋, ⌊>Michael Jackson>⌋, and ⌊>Madonna>⌋ have become global celebrities.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Literature, philosophy, and the arts¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, American art and literature took most of its cues from Europe.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Writers such as ⌊>Nathaniel Hawthorne>⌋, ⌊>Edgar Allan Poe>⌋, and ⌊>Henry David Thoreau>⌋ established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the nineteenth century.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Mark Twain>⌋ and poet ⌊>Walt Whitman>⌋ were major figures in the century's second half; ⌊>Emily Dickinson>⌋, virtually unknown during her lifetime, is recognized as another essential American poet.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Eleven U.S. citizens have won the ⌊>Nobel Prize in Literature>⌋, most recently ⌊>Toni Morrison>⌋ in 1993.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Ernest Hemingway>⌋, the 1954 Nobel laureate, is often named as one of the most influential writers of the twentieth century.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A work seen as capturing fundamental aspects of the national experience and character—such as ⌊>Herman Melville>⌋'s ⌊/⌊>Moby-Dick>⌋/⌋ (1851), Twain's ⌊/⌊>The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn>⌋/⌋ (1885), and ⌊>F. Scott Fitzgerald>⌋'s ⌊/⌊>The Great Gatsby>⌋/⌋ (1925)—may be dubbed the "⌊>Great American Novel>⌋."@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Popular literary genres such as the ⌊>Western>⌋ and ⌊>hardboiled crime fiction>⌋ developed in the United States. ⌊>Postmodernism>⌋ is the most recent major literary movement in the world, and though on the ⌊>theory>⌋ side postmodernism began with French writers like ⌊>Jacques Derrida>⌋ and ⌊>Alain Robbe-Grillet>⌋, and was transitioned into largely by Irish writer ⌊>Samuel Beckett>⌋, it has since been dominated by American writers such as ⌊>Thomas Pynchon>⌋, ⌊>Don DeLillo>⌋, ⌊>William S. Burroughs>⌋, ⌊>Jack Kerouac>⌋, ⌊>John Barth>⌋, ⌊>E.L. Doctorow>⌋, ⌊>Kurt Vonnegut>⌋ and many others.@@@@1@82@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>transcendentalists>⌋, led by ⌊>Ralph Waldo Emerson>⌋ and Thoreau, established the first major American ⌊>philosophical movement>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the Civil War, ⌊>Charles Peirce>⌋ and then ⌊>William James>⌋ and ⌊>John Dewey>⌋ were leaders in the development of ⌊>pragmatism>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the twentieth century, the work of ⌊>W. V. Quine>⌋ and ⌊>Richard Rorty>⌋ helped bring ⌊>analytic philosophy>⌋ to the fore in U.S. academic circles.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the visual arts, the ⌊>Hudson River School>⌋ was an important mid-nineteenth-century movement in the tradition of European ⌊>naturalism>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 1913 ⌊>Armory Show>⌋ in New York City, an exhibition of European ⌊>modernist art>⌋, shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Georgia O'Keeffe>⌋, ⌊>Marsden Hartley>⌋, and others experimented with new styles, displaying a highly individualistic sensibility.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Major artistic movements such as the ⌊>abstract expressionism>⌋ of ⌊>Jackson Pollock>⌋ and ⌊>Willem de Kooning>⌋ and the ⌊>pop art>⌋ of ⌊>Andy Warhol>⌋ and ⌊>Roy Lichtenstein>⌋ have developed largely in the United States.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The tide of modernism and then ⌊>postmodernism>⌋ has also brought American architects such as ⌊>Frank Lloyd Wright>⌋, ⌊>Philip Johnson>⌋, and ⌊>Frank Gehry>⌋ to the top of their field.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the first notable promoters of the nascent American theater was impresario ⌊>P. T. Barnum>⌋, who began operating a lower ⌊>Manhattan>⌋ entertainment complex in 1841.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The team of ⌊>Harrigan and Hart>⌋ produced a series of popular ⌊>musical>⌋ comedies in New York starting in the late 1870s.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009104990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the twentieth century, the modern musical form emerged on ⌊>Broadway>⌋; the songs of musical theater composers such as ⌊>Irving Berlin>⌋, ⌊>Cole Porter>⌋, and ⌊>Stephen Sondheim>⌋ have become ⌊>pop standards>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Playwright ⌊>Eugene O'Neill>⌋ won the Nobel literature prize in 1936; other acclaimed U.S. dramatists include multiple ⌊>Pulitzer Prize>⌋ winners ⌊>Tennessee Williams>⌋, ⌊>Edward Albee>⌋, and ⌊>August Wilson>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though largely overlooked at the time, ⌊>Charles Ives>⌋'s work of the 1910s established him as the first major U.S. composer in the classical tradition; other experimentalists such as ⌊>Henry Cowell>⌋ and ⌊>John Cage>⌋ created an identifiably American approach to classical composition.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Aaron Copland>⌋ and ⌊>George Gershwin>⌋ developed a unique American synthesis of popular and classical music.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Choreographers>⌋ ⌊>Isadora Duncan>⌋ and ⌊>Martha Graham>⌋ were central figures in the creation of ⌊>modern dance>⌋; ⌊>George Balanchine>⌋ and ⌊>Jerome Robbins>⌋ were leaders in twentieth-century ballet.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has long been at the fore in the relatively modern artistic medium of ⌊>photography>⌋, with major practitioners such as ⌊>Alfred Stieglitz>⌋, ⌊>Edward Steichen>⌋, ⌊>Ansel Adams>⌋, and many others.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The newspaper ⌊>comic strip>⌋ and the ⌊>comic book>⌋ are both U.S. innovations.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Superman>⌋, the quintessential comic book ⌊>superhero>⌋, has become an American icon.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Food¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Mainstream American culinary arts are similar to those in other Western countries.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Wheat>⌋ is the primary ⌊>cereal>⌋ grain.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Traditional American cuisine uses ingredients such as ⌊>turkey>⌋, ⌊>white-tailed deer>⌋ ⌊>venison>⌋, ⌊>potato>⌋es, ⌊>sweet potato>⌋es, ⌊>corn>⌋, ⌊>squash>⌋, and ⌊>maple syrup>⌋, indigenous foods employed by Native Americans and early European settlers.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Slow-cooked pork and beef ⌊>barbecue>⌋, ⌊>crab cake>⌋s, ⌊>potato chip>⌋s, and ⌊>chocolate chip cookie>⌋s are distinctively American styles.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Soul food>⌋, developed by African slaves, is popular around the South and among many African Americans elsewhere.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Syncretic>⌋ cuisines such as ⌊>Louisiana creole>⌋, ⌊>Cajun>⌋, and ⌊>Tex-Mex>⌋ are regionally important.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Characteristic dishes such as ⌊>apple pie>⌋, ⌊>fried chicken>⌋, ⌊>pizza>⌋, ⌊>hamburger>⌋s, and ⌊>hot dog>⌋s derive from the recipes of various immigrants.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>French fries>⌋, Mexican dishes such as ⌊>burrito>⌋s and ⌊>taco>⌋s, and ⌊>pasta>⌋ dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are widely consumed.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Americans generally prefer coffee to tea.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Marketing by U.S. industries is largely responsible for making ⌊>orange juice>⌋ and ⌊>milk>⌋ ubiquitous breakfast beverages.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During the 1980s and 1990s, Americans' caloric intake rose 24%; frequent dining at ⌊>fast food>⌋ outlets is associated with what health officials call the American "obesity epidemic."@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Highly sweetened ⌊>soft drink>⌋s are widely popular; sugared beverages account for 9% of the average American's caloric intake.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Sports¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the late nineteenth century, ⌊>baseball>⌋ has been regarded as the ⌊>national sport>⌋; ⌊>football>⌋, ⌊>basketball>⌋, and ⌊>ice hockey>⌋ are the country's three other leading professional team sports.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>College football>⌋ and ⌊>basketball>⌋ also attract large audiences.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Football is now by several measures the most popular ⌊>spectator sport>⌋ in the United States.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Boxing>⌋ and ⌊>horse racing>⌋ were once the most watched individual sports, but they have been eclipsed by ⌊>golf>⌋ and ⌊>auto racing>⌋, particularly ⌊>NASCAR>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Soccer>⌋, though not a leading professional sport in the country, is played widely at the youth and amateur levels.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Tennis>⌋ and many outdoor sports are also popular.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While most major U.S. sports have evolved out of European practices, basketball, ⌊>volleyball>⌋, ⌊>skateboarding>⌋, and ⌊>snowboarding>⌋ are American inventions.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Lacrosse>⌋ and ⌊>surfing>⌋ arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Eight ⌊>Olympic Games>⌋ have ⌊>taken place in the United States>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009105300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has won 2,191 medals at the ⌊>Summer Olympic Games>⌋, more than any other country, and 216 in the ⌊>Winter Olympic Games>⌋, the second most.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δVerbδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For English usage of verbs see the wiki article ⌊>English verbs>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>syntax>⌋, a ⌊∗verb∗⌋ is a ⌊>word>⌋ (⌊>part of speech>⌋) that usually denotes an action (⌊/bring/⌋, ⌊/read/⌋), an occurrence (⌊/decompose/⌋, ⌊/glitter/⌋), or a state of being (⌊/exist/⌋, ⌊/stand/⌋).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Depending on the ⌊>language>⌋, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its ⌊>tense>⌋, ⌊>aspect>⌋, ⌊>mood>⌋ and ⌊>voice>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It may also agree with the ⌊>person>⌋, ⌊>gender>⌋, and/or ⌊>number>⌋ of some of its arguments (⌊>subject>⌋, ⌊>object>⌋, etc.).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Valency¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its ⌊/valency/⌋ or ⌊/valence/⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Verbs can be classified according to their valency:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗⌊>Intransitive>⌋∗⌋ (valency = 1): the verb only has a ⌊>subject>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example: "he runs", "it falls".#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>⌊∗Transitive∗⌋>⌋ (valency = 2): the verb has a subject and a ⌊>direct object>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example: "she eats fish", "Mike hunts deer".#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗⌊>Linking>⌋∗⌋ (valency = 3): State of being; does not require an action.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The subject complements are related to subject rather than the verb.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It simply reports a condition or asks a questions about a condition.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is impossible to have verbs with zero valency.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Weather verbs are often ⌊>impersonal>⌋ (subjectless) in ⌊>null-subject language>⌋s like ⌊>Spanish>⌋, where the verb ⌊/llueve/⌋ means "It rains".@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In English, they require a ⌊>dummy pronoun>⌋, and therefore formally have a valency of 1.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The intransitive and transitive are typical, but the impersonal and objective are somewhat different from the norm.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this sense you can see that a verb is a person, place, or thing.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the objective the verb takes an object but no subject, the nonreferent subject in some uses may be marked in the verb by an incorporated dummy pronoun similar to the English weather verb (see below).@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Impersonal verbs take neither subject nor object, as with other null subject languages, but again the verb may show incorporated dummy pronouns despite the lack of subject and object phrases.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tlingit lacks a ditransitive, so the indirect object is described by a separate, extraposed clause.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English verbs are often flexible with regard to valency.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A transitive verb can often drop its object and become intransitive; or an intransitive verb can take an object and become transitive.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Compare:@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/I moved./⌋ (intransitive)#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/I moved the book./⌋ (transitive)#⌋•⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the first example, the verb ⌊/move/⌋ has no grammatical object.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(In this case, there may be an object understood - the subject (I/myself).@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The verb is then possibly reflexive, rather than intransitive); in the second the subject and object are distinct.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The verb has a different valency, but the form remains exactly the same.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many languages other than English, such valency changes are not possible like this; the verb must instead be inflected for voice in order to change the valency.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Copula¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>copula>⌋ is a word that is used to describe its subject, or to equate or liken the subject with its predicate.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many languages, copulas are a special kind of verb, sometimes called ⌊/copulative verbs/⌋ or ⌊/linking verbs/⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because copulas do not describe actions being performed, they are usually analyzed outside the transitive/intransitive distinction.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most basic copula in English is ⌊/to be/⌋; there are others (⌊/remain/⌋, ⌊/seem/⌋, ⌊/grow/⌋, ⌊/become/⌋, etc.).@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some languages (the ⌊>Semitic>⌋ and ⌊>Slavic>⌋ families, ⌊>Chinese>⌋, ⌊>Sanskrit>⌋, and others) can omit or do not have the simple copula equivalent of "to be", especially in the present tense.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In these languages a ⌊>noun>⌋ and ⌊>adjective>⌋ pair (or two nouns) can constitute a complete sentence.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This construction is called ⌊/⌊>zero copula>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Verbal noun and verbal adjective¦2=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most languages have a number of ⌊>verbal noun>⌋s that describe the action of the verb.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Indo-European languages>⌋, there are several kinds of verbal nouns, including ⌊>gerund>⌋s, ⌊>infinitive>⌋s, and ⌊>supine>⌋s.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English has gerunds, such as ⌊/seeing/⌋, and infinitives such as ⌊/to see/⌋; they both can function as nouns; ⌊/seeing is believing/⌋ is roughly equivalent in meaning with ⌊/to see is to believe./⌋@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These terms are sometimes applied to verbal nouns of non-Indo-European languages.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the Indo-European languages, verbal adjectives are generally called ⌊>participle>⌋s.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English has an ⌊>active>⌋ participle, also called a present participle; and a ⌊>passive>⌋ participle, also called a past participle.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The active participle of ⌊/play/⌋ is ⌊/playing/⌋, and the passive participle is ⌊/played/⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The active participle describes ⌊>noun>⌋s that perform the action given in the verb, e.g.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/I saw the playing children./⌋.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The passive participle describes nouns that have been the object of the action of the verb, e.g.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/I saw the played game scattered across the floor./⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other languages apply tense and aspect to participles, and possess a larger number of them with more distinct shades of meaning.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Agreement¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument (what we tend to call the subject) in person, number and/or gender.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English only shows distinctive agreement in the third person singular, present tense form of verbs (which is marked by adding "-s"); the rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Spanish inflects verbs for tense/mood/aspect and they agree in person and number (but not gender) with the subject.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Japanese>⌋, in turn, inflects verbs for many more categories, but shows absolutely no agreement with the subject.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009200600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Basque>⌋, ⌊>Georgian>⌋, and some other languages, have ⌊/⌊>polypersonal agreement>⌋/⌋: the verb agrees with the subject, the direct object and even the secondary object if present.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δWeb applicationδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>software engineering>⌋, a ⌊∗Web application∗⌋ is an ⌊>application>⌋ that is accessed via ⌊>Web browser>⌋ over a network such as the ⌊>Internet>⌋ or an ⌊>intranet>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is also a computer software application that is coded in a browser-supported language (such as ⌊>HTML>⌋, ⌊>JavaScript>⌋, ⌊>Java>⌋, etc.) and reliant on a common web browser to render the application ⌊>executable>⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Web applications are popular due to the ubiquity of a ⌊>client>⌋, sometimes called a ⌊>thin client>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ability to update and maintain Web applications without distributing and installing software on potentially thousands of client computers is a key reason for their popularity.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common Web applications include ⌊>Webmail>⌋, online ⌊>retail sales>⌋, ⌊>online auction>⌋s, ⌊>wiki>⌋s, ⌊>discussion boards>⌋, ⌊>Weblog>⌋s, ⌊>MMORPG>⌋s and many other functions.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In earlier types of ⌊>client-server>⌋ computing, each application had its own client program which served as its ⌊>user interface>⌋ and had to be separately installed on each user's ⌊>personal computer>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An upgrade to the server part of the application would typically require an upgrade to the clients installed on each user workstation, adding to the ⌊>support>⌋ cost and decreasing ⌊>productivity>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In contrast, Web applications dynamically generate a series of ⌊>Web document>⌋s in a standard format supported by common browsers such as ⌊>HTML>⌋/⌊>XHTML>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Client-side scripting>⌋ in a standard language such as ⌊>JavaScript>⌋ is commonly included to add dynamic elements to the user interface.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Generally, each individual Web page is delivered to the client as a static document, but the sequence of pages can provide an interactive experience, as user input is returned through Web ⌊>form>⌋ elements embedded in the page markup.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During the session, the Web browser interprets and displays the pages, and acts as the ⌊/universal/⌋ client for any Web application.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Interface¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Web interface places very few limits on client functionality.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Through ⌊>Java>⌋, ⌊>JavaScript>⌋, ⌊>DHTML>⌋, ⌊>Flash>⌋ and other technologies, application-specific methods such as drawing on the screen, playing audio, and access to the keyboard and mouse are all possible.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many services have worked to combine all of these into a more familiar interface that adopts the appearance of an operating system.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@General purpose techniques such as ⌊>drag and drop>⌋ are also supported by these technologies.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Web developers often use client-side scripting to add functionality, especially to create an interactive experience that does not require page reloading (which many users find disruptive).@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recently, technologies have been developed to coordinate client-side scripting with server-side technologies such as ⌊>PHP>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Ajax>⌋, a web development technique using a combination of various technologies, is an example of technology which creates a more interactive experience.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Technical considerations¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A significant advantage of building Web applications to support standard browser features is that they should perform as specified regardless of the operating system or OS version installed on a given client.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Rather than creating clients for ⌊>MS Windows>⌋, ⌊>Mac OS X>⌋, ⌊>GNU/Linux>⌋, and other ⌊>operating system>⌋s, the application can be written once and deployed almost anywhere.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, inconsistent implementations of the ⌊>HTML>⌋, ⌊>CSS>⌋, ⌊>DOM>⌋ and other browser specifications can cause problems in web application development and support.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, the ability of users to customize many of the display settings of their browser (such as selecting different font sizes, colors, and typefaces, or disabling scripting support) can interfere with consistent implementation of a Web application.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another approach is to use ⌊>Adobe Flash>⌋ or ⌊>Java applet>⌋s to provide some or all of the user interface.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since most Web browsers include support for these technologies (usually through plug-ins), Flash- or Java-based applications can be implemented with much of the same ease of deployment.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because they allow the programmer greater control over the interface, they bypass many browser-configuration issues, although incompatibilities between Java or Flash implementations on the client can introduce different complications.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of their architectural similarities to traditional client-server applications, with a somewhat "thick" client, there is some dispute over whether to call systems of this sort "Web applications"; an alternative term is "⌊>Rich Internet Application>⌋" (RIA).@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Structure¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though many variations are possible, a Web application is commonly structured as a ⌊>three-tiered>⌋ application.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In its most common form, a Web browser is the first tier, an engine using some dynamic Web content technology (such as ⌊>ASP>⌋, ⌊>ASP.NET>⌋, ⌊>CGI>⌋, ⌊>ColdFusion>⌋, ⌊>JSP/Java>⌋, ⌊>PHP>⌋,⌊>embPerl>⌋, ⌊>Python>⌋, or ⌊>Ruby on Rails>⌋) is the middle tier, and a database is the third tier.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Web browser sends requests to the middle tier, which services them by making queries and updates against the database and generates a user interface.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But there are some who view a web application as a Two-Tier architecture.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Business use¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An emerging strategy for application software companies is to provide Web access to software previously distributed as local applications.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Depending on the type of application, it may require the development of an entirely different browser-based interface, or merely adapting an existing application to use different presentation technology.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These programs allow the user to pay a monthly or yearly fee for use of a software application without having to install it on a local hard drive.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A company which follows this strategy is known as an ⌊>application service provider>⌋ (ASP), and ASPs are currently receiving much attention in the software industry.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Writing Web applications¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are many ⌊>Web application framework>⌋s which facilitate rapid application development by allowing the programmer to define a high-level description of the program.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, there is potential for the development of applications on ⌊>Internet operating system>⌋s, although currently there are not many viable platforms that fit this model.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The use of Web application frameworks can often reduce the number of errors in a program, both by making the code more simple, and by allowing one team to concentrate just on the framework.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In applications which are exposed to constant ⌊>hacking>⌋ attempts on the Internet, security-related problems caused by errors in the program are a big issue.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Frameworks may also promote the use of best practices such as ⌊>GET after POST>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Web Application Security¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Web Application Security Consortium>⌋ (WASC) and ⌊>OWASP>⌋ are projects developed with the intention of documenting how to avoid security problems in Web applications.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>Web Application Security Scanner>⌋ is specialized software for detecting security problems in web applications.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Applications¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Browser applications typically include simple office software (word processors, spreadsheets, and presentation tools) and can also include more advanced application such as project management software, ⌊>CAD>⌋ Design Software, and point-of-sale applications.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Examples∗⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Word processor and Spreadsheet: ⌊> Google Docs & Spreadsheets>⌋#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#CRM Software: ⌊> SalesForce.com>⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Benefits¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Browser Applications typically require little or no disk space, upgrade automatically with new features, integrate easily into other web procedures, such as email and searching.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They also provide cross-platform compatibility (i.e Mac or Windows) because they operate within a web browser window.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Disadvantages¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standards compliance is an issue with any non-typical office document creator, which causes problems when file sharing and collaboration becomes critical.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, Browser Applications rely on application files accessed on remote servers through the internet.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, when connection is interrupted, the application is no longer usable.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009300620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Google Gears>⌋ is a beta platform to combat this issue and improve the usability of Browser Applications.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δWeb search engineδ⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊∗Web search engine∗⌋ is a ⌊>search engine>⌋ designed to search for information on the ⌊>World Wide Web>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Information may consist of ⌊>web page>⌋s, images and other types of files.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some search engines also mine data available in newsbooks, databases, or ⌊>open directories>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike ⌊>Web directories>⌋, which are maintained by human editors, search engines operate algorithmically or are a mixture of ⌊>algorithmic>⌋ and human input.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Before there were search engines there was a complete list of all webservers.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The list was edited by ⌊>Tim Berners-Lee>⌋ and hosted on the CERN webserver.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One historical snapshot from 1992 remains.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As more and more webservers went online the central list could not keep up.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the NCSA Site new servers were announced under the title "What's New!", but no complete listing existed any more.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The very first tool used for searching on the (pre-web) Internet was ⌊>Archie>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The name stands for "archive" without the "v".@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was created in 1990 by ⌊>Alan Emtage>⌋, a student at ⌊>McGill University>⌋ in Montreal.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The program downloaded the directory listings of all the files located on public anonymous FTP (⌊>File Transfer Protocol>⌋) sites, creating a searchable database of file names; however, Archie did not index the contents of these sites.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rise of ⌊>Gopher>⌋ (created in 1991 by ⌊>Mark McCahill>⌋ at the ⌊>University of Minnesota>⌋) led to two new search programs, ⌊>Veronica>⌋ and ⌊>Jughead>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like Archie, they searched the file names and titles stored in Gopher index systems.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Veronica (⌊∗V∗⌋ery ⌊∗E∗⌋asy ⌊∗R∗⌋odent-⌊∗O∗⌋riented ⌊∗N∗⌋et-wide ⌊∗I∗⌋ndex to ⌊∗C∗⌋omputerized ⌊∗A∗⌋rchives) provided a keyword search of most Gopher menu titles in the entire Gopher listings.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Jughead (⌊∗J∗⌋onzy's ⌊∗U∗⌋niversal ⌊∗G∗⌋opher ⌊∗H∗⌋ierarchy ⌊∗E∗⌋xcavation ⌊∗A∗⌋nd ⌊∗D∗⌋isplay) was a tool for obtaining menu information from specific Gopher servers.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the name of the search engine "⌊>Archie>⌋" was not a reference to the ⌊>Archie comic book>⌋ series, "⌊>Veronica>⌋" and "⌊>Jughead>⌋" are characters in the series, thus referencing their predecessor.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first Web search engine was Wandex, a now-defunct index collected by the ⌊>World Wide Web Wanderer>⌋, a ⌊>web crawler>⌋ developed by Matthew Gray at ⌊>MIT>⌋ in 1993.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another very early search engine, ⌊>Aliweb>⌋, also appeared in 1993.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>JumpStation>⌋ (released in early 1994) used a crawler to find web pages for searching, but search was limited to the title of web pages only.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the first "full text" crawler-based search engines was ⌊>WebCrawler>⌋, which came out in 1994.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike its predecessors, it let users search for any word in any webpage, which became the standard for all major search engines since.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was also the first one to be widely known by the public.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also in 1994 ⌊>Lycos>⌋ (which started at ⌊>Carnegie Mellon University>⌋) was launched, and became a major commercial endeavor.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Soon after, many search engines appeared and vied for popularity.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These included ⌊>Magellan>⌋, ⌊>Excite>⌋, ⌊>Infoseek>⌋, ⌊>Inktomi>⌋, ⌊>Northern Light>⌋, and ⌊>AltaVista>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Yahoo!>⌋ was among the most popular ways for people to find web pages of interest, but its search function operated on its ⌊>web directory>⌋, rather than full-text copies of web pages.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Information seekers could also browse the directory instead of doing a keyword-based search.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1996, ⌊>Netscape>⌋ was looking to give a single search engine an exclusive deal to be their featured search engine.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There was so much interest that instead a deal was struck with Netscape by 5 of the major search engines, where for $5Million per year each search engine would be in a rotation on the Netscape search engine page.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These five engines were: ⌊>Yahoo!>⌋, ⌊>Magellan>⌋, ⌊>Lycos>⌋, ⌊>Infoseek>⌋ and ⌊>Excite>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Search engines were also known as some of the brightest stars in the Internet investing frenzy that occurred in the late 1990s.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several companies entered the market spectacularly, receiving record gains during their ⌊>initial public offering>⌋s.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some have taken down their public search engine, and are marketing enterprise-only editions, such as Northern Light.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many search engine companies were caught up in the ⌊>dot-com bubble>⌋, a speculation-driven market boom that peaked in 1999 and ended in 2001.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Around 2000, the ⌊>Google search engine>⌋ rose to prominence.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company achieved better results for many searches with an innovation called ⌊>PageRank>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This iterative algorithm ranks web pages based on the number and PageRank of other web sites and pages that link there, on the premise that good or desirable pages are linked to more than others.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google also maintained a minimalist interface to its search engine.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In contrast, many of its competitors embedded a search engine in a ⌊>web portal>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By 2000, Yahoo was providing search services based on ⌊>Inktomi>⌋'s search engine.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Yahoo! acquired ⌊>Inktomi>⌋ in 2002, and ⌊>Overture>⌋ (which owned ⌊>AlltheWeb>⌋ and ⌊>AltaVista>⌋) in 2003.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Yahoo! switched to Google's search engine until 2004, when it launched its own search engine based on the combined technologies of its acquisitions.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft first launched MSN Search (since re-branded ⌊>Live Search>⌋) in the fall of 1998 using search results from ⌊>Inktomi>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In early 1999 the site began to display listings from ⌊>Looksmart>⌋ blended with results from ⌊>Inktomi>⌋ except for a short time in 1999 when results from ⌊>AltaVista>⌋ were used instead.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, Microsoft began a transition to its own search technology, powered by its own ⌊>web crawler>⌋ (called ⌊>msnbot>⌋).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of late 2007, Google was by far the most popular Web search engine worldwide.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of country-specific search engine companies have become prominent; for example ⌊>Baidu>⌋ is the most popular search engine in the ⌊>People's Republic of China>⌋ and ⌊>guruji.com>⌋ in ⌊>India>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=How Web search engines work¦2=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A search engine operates, in the following order@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Web crawling>⌋#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Indexing>⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Searching>⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages, which they retrieve from the WWW itself.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These pages are retrieved by a ⌊>Web crawler>⌋ (sometimes also known as a spider) — an automated Web browser which follows every link it sees.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Exclusions can be made by the use of ⌊>robots.txt>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The contents of each page are then analyzed to determine how it should be ⌊>indexed>⌋ (for example, words are extracted from the titles, headings, or special fields called ⌊>meta tags>⌋).@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Data about web pages are stored in an index database for use in later queries.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some search engines, such as ⌊>Google>⌋, store all or part of the source page (referred to as a ⌊>cache>⌋) as well as information about the web pages, whereas others, such as ⌊>AltaVista>⌋, store every word of every page they find.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This cached page always holds the actual search text since it is the one that was actually indexed, so it can be very useful when the content of the current page has been updated and the search terms are no longer in it.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem might be considered to be a mild form of ⌊>linkrot>⌋, and Google's handling of it increases ⌊>usability>⌋ by satisfying ⌊>user expectations>⌋ that the search terms will be on the returned webpage.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This satisfies the ⌊>principle of least astonishment>⌋ since the user normally expects the search terms to be on the returned pages.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Increased search relevance makes these cached pages very useful, even beyond the fact that they may contain data that may no longer be available elsewhere.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When a user enters a ⌊>query>⌋ into a search engine (typically by using ⌊>key word>⌋s), the engine examines its ⌊>index>⌋ and provides a listing of best-matching web pages according to its criteria, usually with a short summary containing the document's title and sometimes parts of the text.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most search engines support the use of the ⌊>boolean operators>⌋ AND, OR and NOT to further specify the ⌊>search query>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some search engines provide an advanced feature called ⌊>proximity search>⌋ which allows users to define the distance between keywords.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The usefulness of a search engine depends on the ⌊>relevance>⌋ of the ⌊∗result set∗⌋ it gives back.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While there may be millions of webpages that include a particular word or phrase, some pages may be more relevant, popular, or authoritative than others.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most search engines employ methods to ⌊>rank>⌋ the results to provide the "best" results first.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@How a search engine decides which pages are the best matches, and what order the results should be shown in, varies widely from one engine to another.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The methods also change over time as Internet usage changes and new techniques evolve.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most Web search engines are commercial ventures supported by ⌊>advertising>⌋ revenue and, as a result, some employ the controversial practice of allowing advertisers to pay money to have their listings ranked higher in search results.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those search engines which do not accept money for their search engine results make money by running search related ads alongside the regular search engine results.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The search engines make money every time someone clicks on one of these ads.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vast majority of search engines are run by private companies using proprietary algorithms and closed databases, though ⌊>some>⌋ are open source.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Revenue in the web search portals industry is projected to grow in 2008 by 13.4 percent, with broadband connections expected to rise by 15.1 percent.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Between 2008 and 2012, industry revenue is projected to rise by 56 percent as Internet penetration still has some way to go to reach full saturation in American households.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009400810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Furthermore, broadband services are projected to account for an ever increasing share of domestic Internet users, rising to 118.7 million by 2012, with an increasing share accounted for by fiber-optic and high speed cable lines.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δWordδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊∗word∗⌋ is a unit of ⌊>language>⌋ that carries ⌊>meaning>⌋ and consists of one or more ⌊>morpheme>⌋s which are linked more or less tightly together, and has a ⌊>phonetic>⌋al value.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Typically a word will consist of a ⌊>root>⌋ or ⌊>stem>⌋ and zero or more ⌊>affix>⌋es.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words can be combined to create ⌊>phrase>⌋s, ⌊>clause>⌋s, and ⌊>sentences>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A word consisting of two or more stems joined together form a ⌊>compound>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A word combined with another word or part of a word form a ⌊>portmanteau>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Etymology¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@English ⌊/⌊>word>⌋/⌋ is directly from ⌊>Old English>⌋ ⌊/word/⌋, and has cognates in all branches of ⌊>Germanic>⌋ (⌊>Old High German>⌋ ⌊/wort/⌋, ⌊>Old Norse>⌋ ⌊/orð/⌋, ⌊>Gothic>⌋ ⌊/waurd/⌋), deriving from ⌊>Proto-Germanic>⌋ ⌊/*wurđa/⌋, continuing a virtual ⌊>PIE>⌋ ⌊/*wr̥dhom/⌋.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Cognates outside Germanic include ⌊>Baltic>⌋ (⌊>Old Prussian>⌋ ⌊/wīrds/⌋ "word", and with different ⌊>ablaut>⌋ ⌊>Lithuanian>⌋ ⌊/ var̃das/⌋ "name", ⌊>Latvian>⌋ ⌊/vàrds/⌋ "word, name") and Latin ⌊/⌊>verbum>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The PIE stem ⌊/*werdh-/⌋ is also found in Greek ερθει (φθεγγεται "speaks, utters" ⌊>Hes.>⌋ ).@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The PIE root is ⌊/*ŭer-, ŭrē-/⌋ "say, speak" (also found in Greek ειρω, ⌊>ρητωρ>⌋).@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original meaning of ⌊/word/⌋ is "⌊>utterance>⌋, ⌊>speech>⌋, verbal expression".@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until ⌊>Early Modern English>⌋, it could more specifically refer to a name or title.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The technical meaning of "an element of speech" first arises in discussion of ⌊>grammar>⌋ (particularly Latin grammar), as in the prologue to ⌊>Wyclif>⌋'s Bible (ca. 1400):@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥"This word ⌊/autem/⌋, either ⌊/vero/⌋, mai stonde for ⌊/forsothe/⌋, either for ⌊/but/⌋."⇥⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Definitions¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Depending on the language, words can be difficult to identify or delimit.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Dictionaries>⌋ take upon themselves the task of categorizing a language's ⌊>lexicon>⌋ into ⌊>lemmas>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a "word" in the opinion of the authors.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Word boundaries¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>spoken language>⌋, the distinction of individual words is usually given by rhythm or accent, but short words are often run together.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>clitic>⌋ for ⌊>phonologic>⌋ally dependent words.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Spoken ⌊>French>⌋ has some of the features of a ⌊>polysynthetic language>⌋: ⌊/il y est allé/⌋ ("He went there") is pronounced /⌊λi.ljɛ.ta.le¦i.ljɛ.ta.le¦IPAλ⌋/.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As the majority of the world's languages are not written, the scientific determination of word boundaries becomes important.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are five ways to determine where the word boundaries of spoken language should be placed:@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊:Potential pause:⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly, allowing for pauses.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, this method is not foolproof: the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words.⇥⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊:Indivisibility:⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥A speaker is told to say a ⌊>sentence>⌋ out loud, and then is told to say the sentence again with extra words added to it.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, ⌊/I have lived in this village for ten years/⌋ might become ⌊/I and my family have lived in this little village for about ten or so years/⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These extra words will tend to be added in the word boundaries of the original sentence.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, some languages have ⌊>infix>⌋es, which are put inside a word.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, some have ⌊>separable affix>⌋es; in the ⌊>German>⌋ sentence "Ich ⌊∗komme∗⌋ gut zu Hause ⌊∗an∗⌋," the verb ⌊/ankommen/⌋ is separated.⇥⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊:Minimal free forms:⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥This concept was proposed by ⌊>Leonard Bloomfield>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This correlates phonemes (units of sound) to ⌊>lexeme>⌋s (units of meaning).@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, some written words are not minimal free forms, as they make no sense by themselves (for example, ⌊/the/⌋ and ⌊/of/⌋).⇥⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊:Phonetic boundaries:⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥Some languages have particular rules of ⌊>pronunciation>⌋ that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, in a language that regularly ⌊>stresses>⌋ the last syllable of a word, a word boundary is likely to fall after each stressed syllable.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another example can be seen in a language that has ⌊>vowel harmony>⌋ (like ⌊>Turkish>⌋): the vowels within a given word share the same ⌊/quality/⌋, so a word boundary is likely to occur whenever the vowel quality changes.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, not all languages have such convenient phonetic rules, and even those that do present the occasional exceptions.⇥⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊:Semantic units:⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥Much like the above mentioned minimal free forms, this method breaks down a sentence into its smallest ⌊>semantic>⌋ units.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, language often contains words that have little semantic value (and often play a more grammatical role), or semantic units that are compound words.⇥⌋@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊:A further criterion.@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Pragmatics.:⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As Plag suggests, the idea of a lexical item being considered a word should also adjust to pragmatic criteria.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word "hello, for example, does not exist outside of the realm of greetings being difficult to assign a meaning out of it.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is a little more complex if we consider "how do you do?": is it a word, a phrase, or an idiom?@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In practice, linguists apply a mixture of all these methods to determine the word boundaries of any given sentence.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even with the careful application of these methods, the exact definition of a word is often still very elusive.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are some words that seem very general but may truly have a technical definition, such as the word "soon," usually meaning within a week.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Orthography¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In languages with a ⌊>literary tradition>⌋, there is interrelation between ⌊>orthography>⌋ and the question of what is considered a single word.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Word separator>⌋s (typically ⌊>space marks>⌋) are common in modern orthography of languages using ⌊>alphabetic script>⌋s, but these are (excepting isolated precedents) a modern development (see also ⌊>history of writing>⌋).@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>English orthography>⌋, words may contain spaces if they are ⌊>compounds>⌋ or ⌊>proper noun>⌋s such as ⌊/ice cream/⌋ or ⌊/air raid shelter/⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Vietnamese>⌋ orthography, although using the ⌊>Latin alphabet>⌋, delimits monosyllabic morphemes, not words.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Conversely, ⌊>synthetic language>⌋s often combine many lexical morphemes into single words, making it difficult to boil them down to the traditional sense of words found more easily in ⌊>analytic language>⌋s; this is especially difficult for ⌊>polysynthetic language>⌋s such as ⌊>Inuktitut>⌋ and ⌊>Ubykh>⌋, where entire sentences may consist of single such words.@@@@1@51@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Logographic script>⌋s use single signs (⌊>characters>⌋) to express a word.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most ⌊/de facto/⌋ existing scripts are however partly logographic, and combine logographic with phonetic signs.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most widespread logographic script in modern use is the ⌊>Chinese script>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the Chinese script has some true logographs, the largest class of characters used in modern Chinese (some 90%) are so-called pictophonetic compounds (⌊λ形声字¦zh¦形声字¦Langλ⌋, ⌊λXíngshēngzì¦pny¦Xíngshēngzì¦Langλ⌋).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Characters of this sort are composed of two parts: a pictograph, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and a phonetic part, which is derived from a character pronounced in the same way as the word the new character represents.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this sense, the character for most Chinese words consists of a determiner and a syllabogram, similar to the approach used by ⌊>cuneiform script>⌋ and ⌊>Egyptian hieroglyphs>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is a tendency informed by orthography to identify a single Chinese character as corresponding to a single word in the Chinese language, parallel to the tendency to identify the letters between two space marks as a single word in the English language.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In both cases, this leads to the identification of ⌊>compound members>⌋ as individual words, while e.g. in ⌊>German orthography>⌋, compound members are not separated by space marks and the tendency is thus to identify the entire compound as a single word.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Compare e.g. English ⌊/capital city/⌋ with German ⌊/Hauptstadt/⌋ and Chinese 首都 (lit. ⌊>chief>⌋ ⌊>metropolis>⌋): all three are equivalent compounds, in the English case consisting of "two words" separated by a space mark, in the German case written as a "single word" without space mark, and in the Chinese case consisting of two logographic characters.@@@@1@54@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Morphology¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>synthetic language>⌋s, a single ⌊>word stem>⌋ (for example, ⌊/love/⌋) may have a number of different forms (for example, ⌊/loves/⌋, ⌊/loving/⌋, and ⌊/loved/⌋).@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, these are not usually considered to be different words, but different forms of the same word.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In these languages, words may be considered to be constructed from a number of ⌊>morpheme>⌋s.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>Indo-European languages>⌋ in particular, the morphemes distinguished are@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#the ⌊>root>⌋#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#optional ⌊>suffixes>⌋#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#a ⌊>desinence>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, the Proto-Indo-European ⌊/*wr̥dhom/⌋ would be analysed as consisting of@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/*wr̥-/⌋, the ⌊>zero grade>⌋ of the root ⌊/*wer-/⌋#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#a root-extension ⌊/*-dh-/⌋ (diachronically a suffix), resulting in a complex root ⌊/*wr̥dh-/⌋#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊>thematic suffix>⌋ ⌊/*-o-/⌋#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#the ⌊>neuter gender>⌋ nominative or accusative singular desinence ⌊/*-m/⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Classes¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Grammar>⌋ classifies a language's lexicon into several groups of words.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The basic bipartite division possible for virtually every ⌊>natural language>⌋ is that of ⌊>noun>⌋s vs. ⌊>verb>⌋s.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The classification into such classes is in the tradition of ⌊>Dionysius Thrax>⌋, who distinguished eight categories: noun, verb, ⌊>adjective>⌋, ⌊>pronoun>⌋, ⌊>preposition>⌋, ⌊>adverb>⌋, ⌊>conjunction>⌋, ⌊>interjection>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009500890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Indian grammatical tradition, ⌊>Panini>⌋ introduced a similar fundamental classification into a nominal (nāma, suP) and a verbal (ākhyāta, tiN) class, based on the set of desinences taken by the word.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δWord sense disambiguationδ⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>computational linguistics>⌋, ⌊∗word sense disambiguation∗⌋ (WSD) is the process of identifying which ⌊>sense>⌋ of a ⌊>word>⌋ (having a number of distinct senses) is used in a given ⌊>sentence>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, consider the word ⌊/bass/⌋, two distinct senses of which are:@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#a type of fish#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#tones of low frequency#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@and the sentences:@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/I went fishing for some sea bass/⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/The bass line of the song is very moving/⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Explanation@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To a human it is obvious that the first sentence is using the word ⌊/bass/⌋ in the first sense above, and that in the second sentence it is being used in the second sense.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although this seems obvious to a human, developing ⌊>algorithm>⌋s to replicate this human ability is a difficult task.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Difficulties¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One problem with word sense disambiguation is deciding what the senses are.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In cases like the word ⌊/bass/⌋ above, at least some senses are obviously different.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other cases, however, the different senses can be closely related (one meaning being a ⌊>metaphor>⌋ical or ⌊>metonymic>⌋ extension of another), and in such cases division of words into senses becomes much more difficult.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Different dictionaries will provide different divisions of words into senses.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One solution some researchers have used is to choose a particular dictionary, and just use its set of senses.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Generally, however, research results using broad distinctions in senses have been much better than those using narrow, so most researchers ignore the fine-grained distinctions in their work.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another problem is inter-judge ⌊>variance>⌋.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@WSD systems are normally tested by having their results on a task compared against those of a human.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, humans do not agree on the task at hand — give a list of senses and sentences, and humans will not always agree on which word belongs in which sense.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A computer cannot be expected to give better performance on such a task than a human (indeed, since the human serves as the standard, the computer being better than the human is incoherent), so the human performance serves as an upper bound.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Human performance, however, is much better on coarse-grained than fine-grained distinctions, so this again is why research on coarse-grained distinctions is most useful.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Approaches¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As in all ⌊>natural language processing>⌋, there are two main approaches to WSD — deep approaches and shallow approaches.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Deep approaches presume access to a comprehensive body of ⌊>world knowledge>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Knowledge such as "you can go fishing for a type of fish, but not for low frequency sounds" and "songs have low frequency sounds as parts, but not types of fish" is then used to determine in which sense the word is used.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These approaches are not very successful in practice, mainly because such a body of knowledge does not exist in computer-readable format outside of very limited domains.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But if such knowledge did exist, they would be much more accurate than the shallow approaches.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, there is a long tradition in Computational Linguistics of trying such approaches in terms of coded knowledge, and in some cases it is hard to say clearly whether the knowledge involved is linguistic or world knowledge.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first attempt was that by Margaret Masterman and her colleagues at Cambridge Language Research Unit in England in the 1950s.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This used as data a punched-card version of Roget's Thesaurus and its numbered "heads" as indicators of topics and looked for their repetitions in text, using a set intersection algorithm: it was not very successful (and is described in some detail in (Wilks, Y. et al., 1996) but had strong relationships to later work, especially Yarowsky's machine learning optimisation of a thesaurus method in the 1990s (see below).@@@@1@68@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Shallow approaches don't try to understand the text.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They just consider the surrounding words, using information like "if ⌊/bass/⌋ has words ⌊/sea/⌋ or ⌊/fishing/⌋ nearby, it probably is in the fish sense; if ⌊/bass/⌋ has the words ⌊/music/⌋ or ⌊/song/⌋ nearby, it is probably in the music sense."@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These rules can be automatically derived by the computer, using a training corpus of words tagged with their word senses.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This approach, while theoretically not as powerful as deep approaches, gives superior results in practice, due to computers' limited world knowledge.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It can, though, be confused by sentences like ⌊/The dogs bark at the tree/⌋, which contains the word ⌊/bark/⌋ near both ⌊/tree/⌋ and ⌊/dogs/⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These approaches normally work by defining a window of ⌊/N/⌋ content words around each word to be disambiguated in the corpus, and statistically analyzing those ⌊/N/⌋ surrounding words.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Two shallow approaches used to train and then disambiguate are ⌊/⌊>Naïve Bayes classifier>⌋s/⌋ and ⌊/⌊>decision tree>⌋s/⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In recent research, kernel based methods such as ⌊>support vector machine>⌋s have shown superior performance in ⌊>supervised learning>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But over the last few years, there hasn't been any major improvement in performance of any of these methods.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is instructive to compare the word sense disambiguation problem with the problem of ⌊>part-of-speech tagging>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both involve disambiguating or tagging with words, be it with senses or parts of speech.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, algorithms used for one do not tend to work well for the other, mainly because the part of speech of a word is primarily determined by the immediately adjacent one to three words, whereas the sense of a word may be determined by words further away.@@@@1@47@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The success rate for part-of-speech tagging algorithms is at present much higher than that for WSD, state-of-the art being around 95% accuracy or better, as compared to less than 75% accuracy in word sense disambiguation with supervised learning.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These figures are typical for English, and may be very different from those for other languages.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another aspect of word sense disambiguation that differentiates it from part-of-speech tagging is the availability of training data.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While it is relatively easy to assign parts of speech to text, training people to tag senses is far more difficult .@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While users can memorize all of the possible parts of speech a word can take, it is impossible for individuals to memorize all of the senses a word can take.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, many word sense disambiguation algorithms use ⌊>semi-supervised learning>⌋, which allows both labeled and unlabeled data.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Yarowsky algorithm>⌋ was an early example of such an algorithm.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Yarowsky’s ⌊>unsupervised algorithm>⌋ uses the ‘One sense per collocation’ and the ‘One sense per discourse’ properties of human languages for word sense disambiguation.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From observation, words tend to exhibit only one sense in most given discourse and in a given collocation.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The corpus is initially untagged.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The algorithm starts with a large corpus, in which it identifies examples of the given polysemous word, and stores all the relevant sentences as lines.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, Yarowsky uses the word ‘plant’ in his 1995 paper to demonstrate the algorithm.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Assume that there are two possible senses of the word, the next step is to identify a small number of seed collocations representative of each sense, give each sense a label, i.e. sense A and B, then assign the appropriate label to all training examples containing the seed collocations.@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this case, the words ‘life’ and ‘manufacturing’ are chosen as initial seed collocations for sense A and B respectively.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The residual examples (85% - 98% according to Yarowsky) remain untagged.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The algorithm should initially choose seed collocations representative that will distinguish sense A and B accurately and productively.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This can be done by selecting seed words from a dictionary’s entry for that sense.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The collocations tend to have stronger effect if they are adjacent to the target word, the effect weakens with distance.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the criteria given in Yarowsky (1993), seed words that appear in the most reliable collocational relationships with the target word will be selected.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The effect is much stronger for words in a predicate-argument relationship than for arbitrary associations at the same distance to the target word, and is much stronger for collocations with content words than with function words.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Having said this, a collocation word can have several collocational relationships with the target word throughout the corpus.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This could give the word different rankings or even different classifications.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Alternatively, it can be done by identifying a single defining collocate for each class, and using for seeds only those contexts containing one of these defining words.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A publicly available database called WordNet can be used as an automatic source for such defining terms.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, words that occur near the target word in great frequency can be selected as seed collocations representative.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This approach is not fully automatic, a human judge must decide which word will be selected for each target word’s sense, the outputs will be reliable indicators of the senses.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A decision-list algorithm is then used to identify other reliable collocations.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This training algorithm calculates the probability P(Sense | Collocation), and the decision list is ranked by the log-likelihood ratio: ⌊∗Log( P(Sense⌊,A,⌋ | Collocation⌊,i,⌋) / P(Sense⌊,B,⌋ | Collocation⌊,i,⌋) )∗⌋@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>smoothing>⌋ algorithm will then be used to avoid 0 values.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The decision-list algorithm resolves many problems in a large set of non-independent evidence source by using only the most reliable piece of evidence rather than the whole matching collocation set.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The new resulting classifier will then be applied to the whole sample set.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Add those examples in the residual that are tagged as A or B with probability above a reasonable threshold to the seed sets.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Apply the decision-list algorithm and the above adding step iteratively.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As more newly-learned collocations are added to the seed sets, the sense A or sense B set will grow, and the original residual will shrink.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, these collocations stay in the seed sets only if their probability of classification remains above the threshold, otherwise they are returned to the residual for later classification.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the end of each iteration, the ‘One sense per discourse’ property can be used to help preventing initially mistagged collocates and hence improving the purity of the seed sets.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In order to avoid strong collocates becoming indicators for the wrong class, the class-inclusion threshold needs to be randomly altered.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For the same purpose, after intermediate convergence the algorithm will also need to increase the width of the context window.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The algorithm will continue to iterate until no more reliable collocations are found.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ‘One sense per discourse’ property can be used here for error correction.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For a target word that has a binary sense partition, if the occurrences of the majority sense A exceed that of the minor sense B by a certain threshold, the minority ones will be relabeled as A. According to Yarowsky, for any sense to be clearly dominant, the occurrences of the target word should not be less than 4.@@@@1@59@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When the algorithm converges on a stable residual set, a final decision list of the target word is obtained.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most reliable collocations are at the top of the new list instead of the original seed words.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original untagged corpus is then tagged with sense labels and probabilities.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The final decision list may now be applied to new data, the collocation with the highest rank in the list is used to classify the new data.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009600900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if the highest ranking collocation of the target word in the new data set is of sense A, then the target word is classified as sense A.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δWordNetδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗WordNet∗⌋ is a ⌊>semantic lexicon>⌋ for the ⌊>English language>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It groups English words into sets of synonyms called ⌊/⌊>synsets>⌋/⌋, provides short, general definitions, and records the various ⌊>semantic>⌋ relations between these ⌊>synonym>⌋ sets.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The purpose is twofold: to produce a combination of ⌊>dictionary>⌋ and ⌊>thesaurus>⌋ that is more intuitively usable, and to support automatic text analysis and ⌊>artificial intelligence>⌋ applications.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The database and software tools have been released under a ⌊>BSD style license>⌋ and can be downloaded and used freely.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>database>⌋ can also be browsed ⌊>online>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@WordNet was created and is being maintained at the Cognitive Science Laboratory of ⌊>Princeton University>⌋ under the direction of ⌊>psychology>⌋ ⌊>professor>⌋ ⌊>George A. Miller>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Development began in ⌊>1985>⌋.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over the years, the project received about $3 million of funding, mainly from government agencies interested in ⌊>machine translation>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In recent years, Dr. ⌊>Christiane Fellbaum>⌋ has overseen the development of WordNet.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Database contents¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>As of 2006>⌋, the database contains about 150,000 words organized in over 115,000 ⌊>synsets>⌋ for a total of 207,000 word-sense pairs; in ⌊>compressed>⌋ form, it is about 12 ⌊>megabyte>⌋s in size.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@WordNet distinguishes between ⌊>noun>⌋s, ⌊>verb>⌋s, ⌊>adjective>⌋s and ⌊>adverb>⌋s because they follow different grammatical rules.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Every synset contains a group of synonymous words or ⌊>collocation>⌋s (a ⌊/collocation/⌋ is a sequence of words that go together to form a specific meaning, such as "⌊>car pool>⌋"); different senses of a word are in different synsets.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The meaning of the synsets is further clarified with short defining ⌊/glosses/⌋ (Definitions and/or example sentences).@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A typical example synset with gloss is:@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥good, right, ripe -- (most suitable or right for a particular purpose; "a good time to plant tomatoes"; "the right time to act"; "the time is ripe for great sociological changes")⇥⌋@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most synsets are connected to other synsets via a number of semantic relations.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These relations vary based on the type of word, and include:@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Noun>⌋s@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/⌊>hypernym>⌋s/⌋: ⌊/Y/⌋ is a hypernym of ⌊/X/⌋ if every ⌊/X/⌋ is a (kind of) ⌊/Y/⌋ (⌊/canine/⌋ is a hypernym of ⌊/dog/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/⌊>hyponym>⌋s/⌋: ⌊/Y/⌋ is a hyponym of ⌊/X/⌋ if every ⌊/Y/⌋ is a (kind of) ⌊/X/⌋ (⌊/dog/⌋ is a hyponym of ⌊/canine/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/coordinate terms/⌋: ⌊/Y/⌋ is a coordinate term of ⌊/X/⌋ if ⌊/X/⌋ and ⌊/Y/⌋ share a hypernym (⌊/wolf/⌋ is a coordinate term of ⌊/dog/⌋, and ⌊/dog/⌋ is a coordinate term of ⌊/wolf/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/⌊>holonym>⌋/⌋: ⌊/Y/⌋ is a holonym of ⌊/X/⌋ if ⌊/X/⌋ is a part of ⌊/Y/⌋ (⌊/building/⌋ is a holonym of ⌊/window/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/⌊>meronym>⌋/⌋: ⌊/Y/⌋ is a meronym of ⌊/X/⌋ if ⌊/Y/⌋ is a part of ⌊/X/⌋ (⌊/window/⌋ is a meronym of ⌊/building/⌋)#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Verb>⌋s@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/hypernym/⌋: the verb ⌊/Y/⌋ is a hypernym of the verb ⌊/X/⌋ if the activity ⌊/X/⌋ is a (kind of) ⌊/Y/⌋ (⌊/travel/⌋ is an hypernym of ⌊/movement/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/troponym/⌋: the verb ⌊/Y/⌋ is a troponym of the verb ⌊/X/⌋ if the activity ⌊/Y/⌋ is doing ⌊/X/⌋ in some manner (⌊/to lisp/⌋ is a troponym of ⌊/to talk/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/entailment/⌋: the verb ⌊/Y/⌋ is entailed by ⌊/X/⌋ if by doing ⌊/X/⌋ you must be doing ⌊/Y/⌋ (⌊/to sleep/⌋ is entailed by ⌊/to snore/⌋)#⌋@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/coordinate terms/⌋: those verbs sharing a common hypernym (⌊/to lisp/⌋ and ⌊/to yell/⌋)#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Adjective>⌋s@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/related nouns/⌋#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/similar to/⌋#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊/participle of verb/⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Adverb>⌋s@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊/root adjectives/⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While semantic relations apply to all members of a synset because they share a meaning but are all mutually ⌊>synonym>⌋s, words can also be connected to other words through lexical relations, including ⌊>antonym>⌋s (opposites of each other) and derivationally related, as well.@@@@1@42@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@WordNet also provides the ⌊/polysemy count/⌋ of a word: the number of synsets that contain the word.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If a word participates in several synsets (i.e. has several senses) then typically some senses are much more common than others.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@WordNet quantifies this by the ⌊/frequency score/⌋: in which several sample texts have all words semantically tagged with the corresponding synset, and then a count provided indicating how often a word appears in a specific sense.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The morphology functions of the software distributed with the database try to deduce the ⌊>lemma>⌋ or ⌊>root>⌋ form of a ⌊>word>⌋ from the user's input; only the root form is stored in the database unless it has irregular inflected forms.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Knowledge structure¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both nouns and verbs are organized into hierarchies, defined by hypernym or ⌊/IS A/⌋ relationships.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, the first sense of the word ⌊/dog/⌋ would have the following hypernym hierarchy; the words at the same level are synonyms of each other: some sense of ⌊/dog/⌋ is synonymous with some other senses of ⌊/domestic dog/⌋ and ⌊/Canis familiaris/⌋, and so on.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each set of synonyms (⌊/synset/⌋), has a unique index and shares its properties, such as a gloss (or dictionary) definition.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊πdog, domestic dog, Canis familiaris => canine, canid => carnivore => placental, placental mammal, eutherian, eutherian mammal => mammal => vertebrate, craniate => chordate => animal, animate being, beast, brute, creature, fauna => ...π⌋@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the top level, these hierarchies are organized into ⌊>base types>⌋, 25 primitive groups for nouns, and 15 for verbs.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These groups form ⌊/lexicographic files/⌋ at a maintenance level.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These primitive groups are connected to an abstract root node that have, for some time, been assumed by various applications that use WordNet.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the case of adjectives, the organization is different.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Two opposite 'head' senses work as binary poles, while 'satellite' synonyms connect to each of the heads via synonymy relations.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, the hierarchies, and the concept involved with lexicographic files, do not apply here the same way they do for nouns and verbs.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The network of nouns is far deeper than that of the other parts of speech.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Verbs have a far ⌊/bushier/⌋ structure, and adjectives are organized into many distinct clusters.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Adverbs are defined in terms of the adjectives they are derived from, and thus inherit their structure from that of the adjectives.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Psychological justification¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The goal of WordNet was to develop a system that would be consistent with the knowledge acquired over the years about how human beings process language.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Anomic aphasia>⌋, for example, creates a condition that seems to selectively encumber individuals' ability to name objects; this makes the decision to partition the parts of speech into distinct hierarchies more of a principled decision than an arbitrary one.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the case of ⌊>hyponym>⌋y, psychological experiments revealed that individuals can access properties of nouns more quickly depending on when a characteristic becomes a defining property.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, individuals can quickly verify that ⌊/canaries can sing/⌋ because a canary is a songbird (only one level of hyponymy), but requires slightly more time to verify that ⌊/canaries can fly/⌋ (two levels of hyponymy) and even more time to verify ⌊/canaries have skin/⌋ (multiple levels of hyponymy).@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This suggests that we too store semantic information in a way that is much like WordNet, because we only retain the most specific information needed to differentiate one particular concept from similar concepts.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=WordNet as an ontology¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The hypernym/hyponym relationships among the noun synsets can be interpreted as specialization relations between conceptual categories.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words, WordNet can be interpreted and used as a lexical ⌊>ontology>⌋ in the ⌊>computer science>⌋ sense.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, such an ontology should normally be corrected before being used since it contains hundreds of basic semantic inconsistencies such as (i) the existence of common specializations for exclusive categories and (ii) redundancies in the specialization hierarchy.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Furthermore, transforming WordNet into a lexical ontology usable for knowledge representation should normally also involve (i) distinguishing the specialization relations into subtypeOf and instanceOf relations, and (ii) associating intuitive unique identifiers to each category.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although such corrections and transformations have been performed and documented as part of the ⌊> integration of WordNet 1.7 into the cooperatively updatable knowledge base of WebKB-2>⌋, most projects claiming to re-use WordNet for knowledge-based applications (typically, knowledge-oriented information retrieval) simply re-use it directly.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Limitations¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike other dictionaries, WordNet does not include information about ⌊>etymology>⌋, pronunciation and the forms of ⌊>irregular verb>⌋s and contains only limited information about usage.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The actual lexicographical and semantical information is maintained in ⌊/lexicographer files/⌋, which are then processed by a tool called ⌊/grind/⌋ to produce the distributed database.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both grind and the lexicographer files are freely available in a separate distribution, but modifying and maintaining the database requires expertise.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though WordNet contains a sufficient wide range of common words, it does not cover special domain vocabulary.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since it is primarily designed to act as an underlying database for different applications, those applications cannot be used in specific domains that are not covered by WordNet.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Applications in Information Systems¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@WordNet has been used for a number of different purposes in information systems, including word sense disambiguation, information retrieval, automatic text classification, automatic text summarization, and even automatic crossword puzzle generation.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A project at ⌊>Brown University>⌋ started by ⌊>Jeff Stibel>⌋, ⌊>James A. Anderson>⌋, ⌊>Steve Reiss>⌋ and others called ⌊>Applied Cognition Lab>⌋ created a disambiguator using WordNet in 1998.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The project later morphed into a company called ⌊>Simpli>⌋, which is now owned by ⌊>ValueClick>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@George Miller joined the Company as a member of the Advisory Board.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Simpli built an Internet search engine that utilized a knowledgebase principally based on WordNet to disambiguate and expand keywords and synsets to help retrieve information online.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@WordNet was expanded upon to add increased dimensionality, such as intentionality (used for x), people (⌊>Albert Einstein>⌋) and colloquial terminology more relevant to Internet search (i.e., blogging, ecommerce).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Neural network>⌋ algorithms searched the expanded WordNet for related terms to disambiguate search keywords (Java, in the sense of coffee) and expand the search synset (Coffee, Drink, Joe) to improve search engine results.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Before the company was acquired, it performed searches across search engines such as ⌊>Google>⌋, ⌊>Yahoo>⌋!, ⌊>Ask.com>⌋ and others.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another prominent example of the use of WordNet is to determine the ⌊>similarity>⌋ between words.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various algorithms have been proposed, and these include considering the distance between the conceptual categories of words, as well as considering the hierarchical structure of the WordNet ontology.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of these WordNet-based word similarity algorithms are implemented in a ⌊>Perl>⌋ package called ⌊> WordNet::Similarity>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Interfaces¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Princeton maintains a list of ⌊> related projects>⌋ that includes links to some of the widely used ⌊>application programming interface>⌋s available for accessing WordNet using various programming languages and environments.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other interfaces include the following:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>WordNet on Ajax::DefineItFast.com>⌋ allows users to browse Wordnet 3.0 using an ⌊>ajax>⌋ interface.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊> Jawbone>⌋ project provides a ⌊>Java>⌋ API to the WordNet 2.1 and 3.0 data.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The source code is released under the ⌊>MIT license>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊> Natural Language Toolkit>⌋ provides a ⌊>Python>⌋ API to the WordNet 3.0.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Lingua::Wordnet>⌋ provides a ⌊>Perl>⌋ interface to WordNet.#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>WordNet::Similarity>⌋ Perl module for computing measures of semantic relatedness.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Dictionary::CozyEnglish>⌋ implemented a WordNet 3.0 interface that integrates with ⌊>WordPress>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Blog and website owners can embed this API via a set of HTML code.#⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#The ⌊> Visual Thesaurus>⌋ is a subscription-based commercial application that presents WordNet data through an innovative and user-friendly interface.#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>WordWeb>⌋ is an extended dictionary based on WordNet, also available commercially as ⌊> SQL tables>⌋ for use in other applications.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009700990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Includes many additional terms, derived forms and pronunciations.#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Visual representation of WordNet>⌋ - interface which attempts to visualise the relations.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Related projects¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>EuroWordNet>⌋ project has produced WordNets for several European languages and linked them together; these are not freely available however.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Global Wordnet>⌋ project attempts to coordinate the production and linking of "wordnets" for all languages.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Oxford University Press>⌋, the publisher of the ⌊>Oxford English Dictionary>⌋, has voiced plans to produce their own online competitor to WordNet.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>eXtended WordNet>⌋ is a project at the ⌊>University of Texas at Dallas>⌋ which aims to improve WordNet by semantically parsing the glosses, thus making the information contained in these definitions available for automatic knowledge processing systems.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is also freely available under a license similar to WordNet's.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>GCIDE>⌋ project produces a dictionary by combining a ⌊>public domain>⌋ ⌊/⌊>Webster's Dictionary>⌋/⌋ from ⌊>1913>⌋ with some WordNet definitions and material provided by volunteers.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is released under the ⌊>copyleft>⌋ license ⌊>GPL>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@WordNet is also commonly re-used via mappings between the WordNet categories and the categories from other ontologies.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most often, only the top-level categories of WordNet are mapped.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the authors of the ⌊>SUMO>⌋ ontology have produced a mapping between all of the WordNet synsets, (including nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs), and ⌊>SUMO class>⌋es.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most recent addition of the mappings provides links to all of the more specific terms in the MId-Level Ontology (MILO), which extends SUMO.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>OpenCyc>⌋ has 12,000 terms linked to WordNet synonym sets.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In most works that claim to have integrated WordNet into other ontologies, the content of WordNet has not simply been corrected when semantic problems have been encountered; instead, WordNet has been used as an inspiration source but heavily re-interpreted and updated whenever suitable.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This was the case when, for example, the ⌊> top-level ontology of WordNet was re-structured>⌋ according to the ⌊>OntoClean>⌋ based approach or when WordNet was used as a primary source for constructing the lower classes of the SENSUS ontology.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>FrameNet>⌋ is a project similar to WordNet.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It consists of a lexicon which is based on annotating over 100,000 sentences with their semantic properties.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The unit in focus is the ⌊/lexical frame/⌋, a type of state or event together with the properties associated with it.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An independent project titled ⌊> wordNet>⌋ with an initial lowercase w is an ongoing project to links words and phrases via a custom ⌊>Web crawler>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Lexical markup framework>⌋ (LMF) is a work in progress within ⌊>ISO/TC37>⌋ in order to define a common standardized framework for the construction of lexicons, including WordNet.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊> BalkaNet>⌋ project has produced WordNets for six European languages (Bulgarian, Czech, Greek, Romanian, Turkish and Serbian).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For this project, freely available XML-based WordNet editor was developed.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This editor - ⌊> VisDic>⌋ - is not in active development anymore, but is still used for the creation of various WordNets.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000009701240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its successor, ⌊> DEBVisDic>⌋, is client-server application and is currently used for the editing of several WordNets (Dutch in Cornetto project, Polish, Hungarian, several African languages, Chinese).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013