10490010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Linux</article>@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10490020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Linux''' (commonly pronounced {{IPAEng|ˈlɪnəks}} in English; variants exist) is a [[Unix-like]] computer [[operating system]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10490030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is one of the most prominent examples of [[free software]] and [[open source]] development: typically all underlying [[source code]] can be freely modified, used, and redistributed by anyone.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10490040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The name "Linux" comes from the [[Linux kernel]], originally written in 1991 by [[Linus Torvalds]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10490050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The system's [[system utility|utilities]] and [[library (computer science)|libraries]] usually come from the [[GNU operating system]], announced in 1983 by [[Richard Stallman]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10490060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GNU contribution is the basis for the alternative name '''GNU/Linux'''.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10490070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Predominantly known for its use in [[server (computing)|server]]s, Linux is supported by corporations such as [[Dell]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[IBM]], [[Novell]], [[Oracle Corporation]], [[Red Hat]], and [[Sun Microsystems]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10490080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is used as an operating system for a wide variety of computer [[hardware]], including [[desktop computer]]s, [[supercomputers]], video game systems, such as the [[PlayStation 2]] and [[PlayStation 3]], several [[arcade games]], and [[embedded devices]] such as [[mobile phone]]s, [[routers]], and [[stage lighting]] systems.@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10490090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== History ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10490100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Unix]] operating system was conceived and implemented in the 1960s and first released in 1970.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10490110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its wide availability and [[Porting|portability]] meant that it was widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses, with its design being influential on authors of other systems.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10490120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[GNU Project]], started in 1984, had the goal of creating a "''complete Unix-compatible software system''" made entirely of [[free software]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10490130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1985, [[Richard Stallman]] created the [[Free Software Foundation]] and developed the [[GNU General Public License]] (GNU GPL).@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10490140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of the programs required in an OS (such as libraries, [[compiler]]s, [[text editor]]s, a [[Unix shell]], and a windowing system) were completed by the early 1990s, although low level elements such as [[device driver]]s, [[daemon (computer software)|daemon]]s, and the [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] were stalled and incomplete.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10490150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10490160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== MINIX ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10490170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[MINIX]], a Unix-like system intended for academic use, was released by [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]] in 1987.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10490180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted (that is not the case today).@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10490190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, MINIX's [[16-bit]] design was not well adapted to the [[32-bit]] design of the increasingly cheap and popular [[Intel 386]] architecture for personal computers.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10490200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1991, Torvalds began to work on a non-commercial replacement for MINIX while he was attending the [[University of Helsinki]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10490210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This eventually became the [[Linux kernel]].@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10490220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1992, Tanenbaum posted an article on [[Usenet]] claiming Linux was obsolete.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10490230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the article, he criticized the operating system as being [[Monolithic kernel|monolithic]] in design and being tied closely to the x86 architecture and thus not portable, as he described "a fundamental error."@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10490240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tanenbaum suggested that those who wanted a modern operating system should look into one based on the [[microkernel]] model.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10490250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The posting elicited the response of Torvalds and [[Ken Thompson]], one of the founders of [[Unix]], which resulted in a well known debate over the microkernel and monolithic kernel designs.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10490260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux was dependent on the MINIX [[user space]] at first.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10490270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling OS.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10490275@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10490280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In order to make the Linux kernel compatible with the components from the GNU Project, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10490290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux and GNU developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10490300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Commercial and popular uptake ===@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10490310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today Linux is used in numerous domains, from [[embedded system]]s to [[supercomputer]]s, and has secured a place in [[server (computing)|server]] installations with the popular [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] application stack.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10490320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10490330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10490340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10490350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10490360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of [[Linux distribution]]s.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10490370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Design ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10490380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is a modular [[Unix-like]] operating system.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10490390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10490400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux uses a [[monolithic kernel]], the [[Linux kernel]], which handles process control, networking, and [[peripheral]] and [[file system]] access.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10490410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Device drivers]] are integrated directly with the kernel.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10490420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Much of Linux's higher-level functionality is provided by separate projects which interface with the kernel.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10490430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GNU [[Userland (computing)|userland]] is an important part of most Linux systems, providing the [[shell (computing)|shell]] and [[Unix tool]]s which carry out many basic operating system tasks.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10490440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On top these tools form a Linux system with a [[graphical user interface]] that can be used, usually running in the [[X Window System]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10490450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== User interface ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10490460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux can be controlled by one or more of a text-based [[command line interface]] (CLI), [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) (usually the default for desktop), or through controls on the device itself (common on embedded machines).@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10490470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On desktop machines, [[KDE]], [[GNOME]] and [[Xfce]] are the most popular user interfaces, though a variety of other user interfaces exist.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10490480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most popular user interfaces run on top of the [[X Window System]] (X), which provides [[network transparency]], enabling a graphical application running on one machine to be displayed and controlled from another.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10490490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other GUIs include [[X window manager]]s such as [[FVWM]], [[Enlightenment (window manager)|Enlightenment]] and [[Window Maker]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10490500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X window system.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10490510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A Linux system usually provides a [[CLI]] of some sort through a [[Shell (computing)|shell]], which is the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10490520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10490530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A “headless system” run without even a monitor can be controlled by the command line via a protocol such as [[Secure Shell|SSH]] or [[telnet]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10490540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU [[Userland (computing)|Userland]], use the CLI exclusively.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10490550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple [[inter-process communication]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10490560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A graphical [[terminal emulator]] program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10490570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Development ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10490580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the [[Linux kernel]] and other components are [[free software|free]] and [[open source software]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10490590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is the best-known and most widely used.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10490600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some [[free software license|free]] and [[open source license|open source]] software licences are based on the principle of [[copyleft]], a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10490610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most common free software license, the [[GNU GPL]], is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the [[GNU project]].@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10490620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As an operating system [[underdog (competition)|underdog]] competing with mainstream operating systems, Linux cannot rely on a [[monopoly]] advantage; in order for Linux to be convenient for users, Linux aims for [[interoperability]] with other operating systems and established computing standards.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10490630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux systems adhere to [[POSIX]], [[Single UNIX Specification|SUS]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] and [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10490640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Free software projects, although developed in a [[Collaboration|collaborative]] fashion, are often produced independently of each other.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10490650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, given that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, this provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a [[Linux distribution]].@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10490660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A [[Linux distribution]], commonly called a “distro”, is a project that manages a remote collection of Linux-based software, and facilitates installation of a Linux operating system.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10490670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10490680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They include system software and [[application software]] in the form of ''packages'', and distribution-specific software for initial system installation and configuration as well as later package upgrades and installs.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10490690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of installed Linux systems, system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10490700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Community ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10490710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is largely driven by its developer and user communities.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10490720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, [[Debian]] being a well-known example.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10490730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as [[Red Hat]] does with [[Fedora (Linux distribution)|Fedora]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10490740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many cities and regions, local associations known as [[Linux Users Group]]s (LUGs) seek to promote Linux and by extension free software.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10490750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10490760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are also many [[Internet]] communities that seek to provide support to Linux users and developers.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10490770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most distributions and open source projects have [[IRC]] chatrooms or [[newsgroup]]s.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10490780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Online forum]]s are another means for support, with notable examples being [[LinuxQuestions.org]] and the [[Gentoo Linux|Gentoo]] forums.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10490790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux distributions host [[mailing list]]s; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10490800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are several technology websites with a Linux focus.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10490810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Linux Weekly News]] is a weekly digest of Linux-related news; the [[Linux Journal]] is an online magazine of Linux articles published monthly; [[Slashdot]] is a technology-related news website with many stories on Linux and open source software; [[Groklaw]] has written in depth about Linux-related legal proceedings and there are many articles relevant to the Linux kernel and its relationship with [[GNU]] on the [[GNU Project|GNU project's]] website.@@@@1@67@@danf@17-8-2009
10490820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Print [[magazine]]s on Linux often include [[cover disk]]s including software or even complete Linux distributions.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10490830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although Linux is generally available free of charge, several large corporations have established business models that involve selling, supporting, and contributing to Linux and free software.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10490840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These include [[Dell]], [[IBM]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Novell]], and [[Red Hat]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10490850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The free software licenses on which Linux is based explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between Linux as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as [[symbiosis|symbiotic]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10490860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10490870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10490880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10490890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Programming on Linux ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10490900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most Linux distributions support dozens of [[programming language]]s.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10490910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the [[GNU toolchain]], which includes the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC) and the [[GNU build system]].@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10490920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]], [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], and [[Fortran]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10490930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10490940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Proprietary software|Proprietary]] compilers for Linux include the [[Intel C++ Compiler]] and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10490950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most distributions also include support for [[Perl]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[Python programming language|Python]] and other [[Dynamic programming language|dynamic languages]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10490960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of languages that are less common, but still well-supported, are [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]] via the [[Mono (software)|Mono]] project, sponsored by [[Novell]], and [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10490970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of [[Java Virtual Machine]]s and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM ([[HotSpot]]), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like [[Kaffe]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10490980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10490990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These projects are based on the [[GTK+]] and [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] [[widget toolkit]]s, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10491000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both support a wide variety of languages.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10491010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are a number of [[Integrated development environment]]s available including [[Anjuta]], [[Code::Blocks]], [[Eclipse (computing)|Eclipse]], [[KDevelop]], [[Lazarus (software)|Lazarus]], [[MonoDevelop]], [[NetBeans]], and [[Omnis Studio]] while the long-established editors [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]] and [[Emacs]] remain popular.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10491020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Uses ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10491030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: [[computer architecture]] support, [[Embedded Linux|embedded systems]], stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for [[real-time computing|real-time]] applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment.@@@@1@53@@danf@17-8-2009
10491040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only [[free software]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10491050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10491060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is a widely [[porting|ported]] operating system.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10491070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the Linux kernel was originally designed only for [[Intel 80386]] [[microprocessor]]s, it now runs on a more diverse range of [[computer architecture]]s than any other operating system: in the hand-held [[ARM architecture|ARM]]-based [[iPAQ]] and the [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] [[IBM]] [[System z9]], in devices ranging from [[mobile phone]]s to [[supercomputer]]s.@@@@1@49@@danf@17-8-2009
10491080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10491090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[ELKS]] kernel [[fork (software development)|fork]] can run on [[Intel 8086]] or [[Intel 80286]] [[16-bit]] microprocessors, while the [[µClinux]] kernel fork may run on systems without a [[memory management unit]].@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10491100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as [[Macintosh]] computers, [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]s, [[video game console]]s, [[Digital audio player|portable music players]], and [[mobile phone]]s.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10491110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Desktop ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10491120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although there is a lack of Linux ports for some [[Mac OS X]] and [[Microsoft Windows]] programs in domains such as [[desktop publishing]] and [[professional audio]], applications equivalent to those available for Mac and Windows are available for Linux.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10491130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most Linux distributions provide a program for browsing a list of thousands of [[free software]] applications that have already been tested and configured for a specific distribution.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10491140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These free programs can be downloaded and installed with one mouse click and a digital signature guarantees that no one has added a virus or a spyware to these programs.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10491150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many [[free software]] titles that are popular on Windows, such as [[Pidgin (software)|Pidgin]], [[Mozilla Firefox]], [[Openoffice.org]], and [[GIMP]], are available for Linux.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10491160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A growing amount of proprietary desktop software is also supported under Linux, examples being [[Adobe Flash Player]], [[Adobe Acrobat|Acrobat Reader]], [[Matlab]], [[Nero Burning ROM]], [[Opera (Internet suite)|Opera]], [[RealPlayer]], and [[Skype]].@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10491170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10491180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[CrossOver]] is a proprietary solution based on the open source [[Wine (software)|Wine]] project that supports running older Windows versions of [[Microsoft Office]] and [[Adobe Photoshop]] versions through CS2.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10491190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Microsoft Office 2007]] and Adobe Photoshop CS3 are known not to work.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10491200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Besides the free Windows compatibility layer [[Wine (software)|Wine]], most distributions offer [[Dual boot]] and [[X86 virtualization]] for running both Linux and Windows on the same computer.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10491210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux's open nature allows distributed teams to [[L10n|localize]] Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10491220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example the [[Sinhalese language]] version of the [[Knoppix]] distribution was available for a long time before [[Microsoft Windows XP]] was translated to Sinhalese.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10491230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, [[linguist]]s, and local developers.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10491240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic, with at least one key Linux kernel developer, Con Kolivas, accusing the Linux community of favouring performance on servers.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10491250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He quit Linux development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a 'tell all' interview on the topic.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10491260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Servers and supercomputers ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10491270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Historically, Linux has mainly been used as a [[Server (computing)|server]] operating system, and has risen to prominence in that area; [[Netcraft]] reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies run Linux on their [[web server]]s.@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10491280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is due to its relative stability and long uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface for servers is often unneeded.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10491290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10491300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is the cornerstone of the [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] server-software combination (Linux, [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache]], [[MySQL]], [[Perl]]/[[PHP]]/[[Python (programming language)|Python]]) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10491310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux is commonly used as an operating system for [[supercomputer]]s.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10491320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of [[November 2007]], out of the top 500 systems, 426 (85.2%) run Linux.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10491330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Embedded devices ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10491340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Due to its low cost and ability to be easily modified, an [[embedded Linux]] is often used in [[embedded systems]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10491350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linux has become a major competitor to the proprietary [[Symbian OS]] found in the majority of smartphones — 16.7% of [[smartphone]]s sold worldwide during 2006 were using Linux — and it is an alternative to the proprietary [[Windows CE]] and [[Palm OS]] operating systems on [[mobile device]]s.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10491360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Cell phones or PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a trend from 2007, like [[Nokia N810]], [[Openmoko]]'s [[Neo1973]] and the on-going [[Google Android]].@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10491370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The popular [[TiVo]] digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10491380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several network [[firewall]] and [[router]] standalone products, including several from [[Linksys]], use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10491390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Korg OASYS]] and the [[Yamaha Motif|Yamaha Motif XS]] [[music workstation]]s also run Linux.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10491400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Further more Linux is used in the leading [[stage lighting]] control system, FlyingPig/HighEnd WholeHogIII Console .@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10491410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Market share and uptake ===@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10491420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many quantitative studies of open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10491430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10491440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[International Data Corporation|IDC]]'s report for Q1 2007 says that Linux now holds 12.7% of the overall server market.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10491450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10491460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Desktop adoption of Linux is approximately 1%.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10491470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In comparison, [[List of Microsoft operating systems|Microsoft operating systems]] hold more than 90%.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10491480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The frictional cost of switching operating systems and lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed for [[Microsoft Windows]] have been two factors that have inhibited adoption.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10491490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from [[vendor lock-in]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10491500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also most recently Google has begun to fund [[Wine (software)|Wine]], which acts as a compatibility layer, allowing users to run some Windows programs under Linux.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10491510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[OLPC XO-1|XO laptop]] project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to reach [http://www.laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml several hundred million schoolchildren] and their families and communities in developing countries.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10491515@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[http://wiki.laptop.org/go/countries Six countries] have ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10491520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Google]], [[Red Hat]], and [[eBay]] are major supporters of the project.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10491530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Copyright and naming ==@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10491540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Linux kernel and most GNU software are [[software license|license]]d under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL).@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10491550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL requires that anyone who distributes the Linux kernel must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10491560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, “Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did.”@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10491570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the [[X Window System]] uses the [[MIT License]].@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10491580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Torvalds has publicly stated that he would not move the Linux kernel (currently licensed under GPL version 2) to version 3 of the GPL, released in mid-2007, specifically citing some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in [[digital rights management]].@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10491590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A 2001 study of [[Red Hat Linux]] 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million [[source lines of code]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10491600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using the [[COCOMO|Constructive Cost Model]], the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10491610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional [[proprietary software|proprietary]] means, it would have cost about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10491620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the code (71%) was written in the [[C (programming language)|C]] [[computer programming|programming]] [[programming language|language]], but many other languages were used, including [[C++]], [[assembly language]], [[Perl]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], [[Fortran]], and various [[shell script]]ing languages.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10491630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10491640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10491650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 4.0.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10491660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This distribution contained over 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 5.4 billion Euros to develop by conventional means.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10491670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the United States, the name ''Linux'' is a [[trademark]] registered to Linus Torvalds.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10491680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Initially, nobody registered it, but on [[August 15]] [[1994]], William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark ''Linux'', and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10491690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10491700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the [[Linux Mark Institute]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10491710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Torvalds has stated that he only trademarked the name to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by [[United States trademark law]] to take active measures to enforce the trademark.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10491720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, the LMI sent out a number of letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10491730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== GNU/Linux ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10491740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Free Software Foundation]] views Linux distributions which use GNU software as [[GNU variants]] and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as ''GNU/Linux'' or ''a Linux-based GNU system''.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10491750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the media and population at large refers to this family of operating systems simply as ''Linux''.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10491760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While some distributors make a point of using the aggregate form, most notably [[Debian]] with the ''[[Debian GNU/Linux]]'' distribution, the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10491770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The distinction between the Linux kernel and distributions based on it plus the GNU system is a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial, as many large Linux distributions (e.g. [[Ubuntu]] and [[SuSE]] Linux) are simply using the ''Linux'' name, rather than ''GNU/Linux''.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10500010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>List of chatterbots</article>@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Chatterbot Directories==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.simonlaven.com Chatterbot Central] at [http://www.simonlaven.com The Simon Laven Page]@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10500050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.aidreams.co.uk/chatterbotcollection/index.htm The Chatterbot Collection]@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10500060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.aihub.org AI Hub] - A directory of news, programs, and links all related to chatterbots and Artificial Intelligence@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10500070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.chatterboxchallenge.com/bots_dir.php The Chatterbox Challenge Bots Directory] at [http://www.chatterboxchallenge.com The Chatterbox Challenge]@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10500080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Classic Chatterbots==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Dr. Sbaitso]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[ELIZA]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[PARRY]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Racter]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==General Chatterbots==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity|A.L.I.C.E.]] and other [[Alicebot]]/pandorabot-based ([http://www.titane.ca/concordia/dfar251/igod/main.html iGod], [http://www.mousebreaker.com/games/chatbot/play.php Mitsuku], [http://www.friendbot.co.uk FriendBot], etc.)@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10500150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Albert One]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[ALIMbot]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[CHAT and TIPS]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.chat-bot.com Chat-bot]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Claude Chatterbot|Claude]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.dadorac.com Dadorac]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.dai2.co.uk/ DAI2] - A dynamic artificial intelligence which learns from its surrounding community@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10500220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.elbot.com/ Elbot]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Ella Chatterbot|Ella]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Fred Chatterbot|Fred]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Jabberwacky]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.abenteuermedien.de/jabberwock Jabberwock]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.jeeney.com/ Jeeney AI]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.jixperts.com?lang=en JIxperts] – collection of wiki chatterbots.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10500290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.iaindustrie.fr.nf KAR Intelligent Computer]@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10500300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.leeds-city-guide.com/kyle Kyle] – A unique learning Artificial Intelligence chatbot, which employs contextual learning algorithms.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10500310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[MegaHal]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Mr Know-It-All]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Oliverbot@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://uk.geocities.com/mattbrown1101/ Poseidon]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.infradrive.com/robomatic.php RoboMatic X1] - A chatbot which controls the user's PC through chatting by their voice or by typing.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10500360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.cooldictionary.com/splotchy.mpl Splotchy]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Starship Titanic#Spookitalk|Spookitalk]] - A chatterbot used for [[Non-player character|NPC]]s in [[Douglas Adams]]' ''Starship Titanic'' video game.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10500380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.onebigspace.com/ Thomas]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Ultra Hal Assistant]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Verbot]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.yhaken.com/ Yhaken]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.scientiobot.com ScientioBot] - A new technology chatterbot using concept mining techniques accessible via a free web service.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10500430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://nicole.jetaylor.net NICOLE] A simple chatterbot with the ability to learn new phrases.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10500440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==[[Instant messenger|IM]] Chatterbots==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*DAI2 is also available on the MSN / Windows Live network as dai2\sdai2.co.uk@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10500460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.dnreg.org/bot/ MSN Quickbot]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.smarterchild.com SmarterChild]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.spleak.com Spleak]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.mrmovie.com MrMovie] - searching actors/movies/dvd's in IM (Skype, AOL/AIM or MSN/Live)@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10500500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Inside Messenger Bot|InsideMessenger]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.inocu.jt-online.co.uk Inocu] - (MSN/Live)@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10500520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.friendbot.co.uk FriendBot-An AIM Chatterbot]@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10500530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.amsn-project.net/plugins.php amsnEliza plugin for aMSN]@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10500540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Inside Messenger Bot|TrixieMouse]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.infobot.pl/ Infobot] - Polish informational bot for Gadu-gadu, Skype and Jabber@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10500560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==AIML Chatterbots==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.taik.fi/turingenigma Alan] - In ''Turing Enigma'' Alan Turing's spirit has infiltrated the World War II encrypting device Enigma.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10500580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.dustyant.com/projects/deebot/ Deeb0t]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.pandorabots.com/pandora/talk?botid=b0dafd24ee35a477 Chomsky] A chatbot that uses a smiley face to convey emotions.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10500600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It uses the information in Wikipedia to build its conversations and has links to Wikipedia articles.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10500610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[John Lennon Artificial Intelligence Project]]@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10500620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[SitePal]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==JFred Chatterbots==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[The Turing Hub]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10500650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Educational Chatterbots==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.philocomp.net/?pageref=ai&page=elizabeth Elizabeth] Aims to teach AI techniques and concepts, starting from chatterbot design.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10500670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Accompanied by self-teaching materials, as used at the University of Leeds.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10500680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Non-English Chatterbots==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10500690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[http://www.geocities.com/brizglace/amanda.htm Amanda] - (French) with source code for Windows.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10500700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Proteus]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[msnim:chat?contact=senhorbot\shotmail.com Senhor Bot] (Brazillian bot for MSN)@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10500720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Category:Chatterbots|*]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10500730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[bn:চ্যাটারবটসমূহের তালিকা]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10510010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Loebner prize</article>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10510020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The '''Loebner Prize''' is an annual competition that awards prizes to the [[Chatterbot]] considered by the judges to be the most [[Artificial intelligence|humanlike]] of those entered.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10510030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The format of the competition is that of a standard [[Turing test]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10510040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the Loebner Prize, as in a Turing test, a human judge is faced with two computer screens.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10510050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One is under the control of a computer, the other is under the control of a human.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10510060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The judge poses questions to the two screens and receives answers.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10510070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Based upon the answers, the judge must decide which screen is controlled by the human and which is controlled by the computer program.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10510080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The contest was begun in 1990 by [[Hugh Loebner]] in conjunction with the [[Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies]] of [[Massachusetts]], [[United States]].@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10510090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has since been associated with [[Flinders University]], [[Dartmouth College]], the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in [[London]], and most recently the [[University of Reading]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10510100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Within the field of artificial intelligence, the Loebner Prize is somewhat controversial; the most prominent critic, [[Marvin Minsky]], has called it a publicity stunt that does not help the field along.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10510110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Prizes==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10510120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The prizes for each year include:@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10510130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* $2,000 for the most human-seeming of all chatterbots for that year - awarded every year.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10510140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, the prize was increased to $3,000, and the prize was $2,250 in 2006.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10510150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2008 the prize will be $3000.00@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10510160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* $25,000 for the first chatterbot that judges cannot distinguish from a real human in a text-only Turing test, and that can convince judges that the other (human) entity they are talking to simultaneously is a computer.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10510165@unknown@formal@none@1@S@''(to be awarded once only)''@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10510170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* $100,000 to the first chatterbot that judges cannot distinguish from a real human in a Turing test that includes deciphering and understanding text, visual, and auditory input.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10510175@unknown@formal@none@1@S@''(to be awarded once only)''@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10510180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Loebner Prize dissolves once the $100,000 prize is won.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10510190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==2008 Loebner Prize==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10510200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 2008 Competition is to be held on Sunday [[12 October]] in University of Reading, [[United Kingdom|UK]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10510210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The event, which is being co-directed by [[Kevin Warwick]], will include a direct challenge on the [[Turing test]] as originally proposed by [[Alan Turing]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10510220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first place winner will receive $3000.00 and a bronze medal.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10510230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==2007 Loebner Prize==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10510240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 2007 Competition was held on Sunday, [[21 October]] in [[New York City]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10510250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The participants in the contest were:@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10510260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Rollo Carpenter]] from Icogno, creator of [[Jabberwacky]]@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10510270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Noah Duncan, private entry, creator of Cletus@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10510280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Robert Medeksza from Zabaware, creator of [[Ultra Hal Assistant]]@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10510290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@No bot passed the Turing test but the judges ranked the bots as "most human".@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10510300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The results of the contest were:@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10510310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1st place: Robert Medeksza@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10510320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 2nd place: Noah Duncan@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10510330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 3rd place: Rollo Carpenter@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10510340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The winner received $2250 and the Annual Medal.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10510350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The runners up received $250 each.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10510360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==2006 Loebner Prize==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10510370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On Wednesday, [[August 30]], the finalists for the 2006 Loebner Prize were announced.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10510380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The finalists were:@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10510390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Rollo Carpenter@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10510400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Richard Churchill and Marie-Claire Jenkins@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10510410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Noah Duncan@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10510420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Robert Medeksza@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10510430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The contest was held on Sunday, [[17 September]] at the Torrington Theatre, [[University College London]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10510440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Winners==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10520010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Machine learning</article>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a broad subfield of [[artificial intelligence]], '''machine learning''' is concerned with the design and development of [[algorithm]]s and techniques that allow computers to "learn".@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10520030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At a general level, there are two types of learning: [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]], and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10520040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Inductive machine learning methods extract rules and patterns out of massive data sets.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10520050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The major focus of machine learning research is to extract information from data automatically, by computational and statistical methods.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10520060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hence, machine learning is closely related not only to [[data mining]] and [[statistics]], but also [[theoretical computer science]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10520070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Applications==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10520080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine learning has a wide spectrum of applications including [[natural language processing]], [[syntactic pattern recognition]], [[search engines]], [[diagnosis|medical diagnosis]], [[bioinformatics]], [[brain-machine interfaces]] and [[cheminformatics]], detecting [[credit card fraud]], [[stock market]] analysis, classifying [[DNA sequence]]s, [[speech recognition|speech]] and [[handwriting recognition]], [[object recognition]] in [[computer vision]], [[strategy game|game playing]] and [[robot locomotion]].@@@@1@50@@danf@17-8-2009
10520090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Human interaction ==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10520100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some machine learning systems attempt to eliminate the need for human intuition in the analysis of the data, while others adopt a collaborative approach between human and machine.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10520110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Human intuition cannot be entirely eliminated since the designer of the system must specify how the data is to be represented and what mechanisms will be used to search for a characterization of the data.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10520120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine learning can be viewed as an attempt to automate parts of the [[scientific method]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10520130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some statistical machine learning researchers create methods within the framework of [[Bayesian statistics]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10520140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Algorithm types ==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10520150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine learning [[algorithm]]s are organized into a [[taxonomy]], based on the desired outcome of the algorithm.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10520160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common algorithm types include:@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10520170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Supervised learning]] &mdash; in which the algorithm generates a function that maps inputs to desired outputs.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10520180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One standard formulation of the supervised learning task is the [[statistical classification|classification]] problem: the learner is required to learn (to approximate) the behavior of a function which maps a vector <math>[X_1, X_2, \\ldots X_N]\\,</math> into one of several classes by looking at several input-output examples of the function.@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10520190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Unsupervised learning]] &mdash; An agent which models a set of inputs: labeled examples are not available.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10520200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Semi-supervised learning]] &mdash; which combines both labeled and unlabeled examples to generate an appropriate function or classifier.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10520210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Reinforcement learning]] &mdash; in which the algorithm learns a policy of how to act given an observation of the world.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10520220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Every action has some impact in the environment, and the environment provides feedback that guides the learning algorithm.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10520230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Transduction (machine learning)|Transduction]] &mdash; similar to supervised learning, but does not explicitly construct a function: instead, tries to predict new outputs based on training inputs, training outputs, and test inputs which are available while training.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10520240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Leaning to learn]] &mdash; in which the algorithm learns its own [[inductive bias]] based on previous experience.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10520250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of [[theoretical computer science]] known as [[computational learning theory]].@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10520260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Machine learning topics ==@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10520270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''This list represents the topics covered on a typical machine learning course.''@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10520280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@;Prerequisites@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10520290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Bayesian theory]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@;Modeling [[conditional probability|conditional probability density functions]]<nowiki>: </nowiki> [[Regression analysis|regression]] and [[Statistical classification|classification]]@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10520310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Artificial neural network]]s@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Decision tree]]s@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Gene expression programming]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Genetic algorithms]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Genetic programming]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Holographic associative memory]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Inductive Logic Programming]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Kriging|Gaussian process regression]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Linear discriminant analysis]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Nearest neighbor (pattern recognition)|K-nearest neighbor]]@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10520410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Minimum message length]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Perceptron]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10520430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Quadratic classifier]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Radial basis function network]]s@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10520450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Support vector machine]]s@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@;Algorithms for estimating model parameters:@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10520470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Dynamic programming]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Expectation-maximization algorithm]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@;Modeling [[probability density function]]s through [[generative model]]s:@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10520500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Graphical model]]s including [[Bayesian network]]s and [[Markov network|Markov random fields]]@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10520510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Generative topographic map]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@;Approximate inference techniques@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Monte Carlo method]]s@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Variational Bayes]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Variable-order Markov model]]s@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Variable-order Bayesian network]]s@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Loopy belief propagation]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@;Optimization@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10520590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Most of methods listed above either use [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]] or are instances of optimization algorithms@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10520600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@;Meta-learning (ensemble methods)@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Boosting]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10520620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Bootstrap aggregating]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Random forest]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Weighted majority algorithm]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@;Inductive transfer and learning to learn@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10520660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Inductive transfer]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Reinforcement learning]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10520680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Temporal difference learning]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10520690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Monte-Carlo method]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10530010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Machine translation</article>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10530020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine translation''', sometimes referred to by the abbreviation '''MT''', is a sub-field of [[computational linguistics]] that investigates the use of [[computer software]] to [[translation|translate]] text or speech from one [[natural language]] to another.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10530030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At its basic level, MT performs simple [[substitution]] of words in one natural language for words in another.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10530040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using [[corpus linguistics|corpus]] techniques, more complex translations may be attempted, allowing for better handling of differences in [[linguistic typology]], phrase [[recognition]], and translation of [[idiom]]s, as well as the isolation of anomalies.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10530050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Current machine translation software often allows for customisation by domain or [[profession]] (such as [[meteorology|weather reports]]) &mdash; improving output by limiting the scope of allowable substitutions.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10530060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This technique is particularly effective in domains where formal or formulaic language is used.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10530070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It follows then that machine translation of government and legal documents more readily produces usable output than conversation or less standardised text.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10530080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Improved output quality can also be achieved by human intervention: for example, some systems are able to translate more accurately if the user has [[word sense disambiguation|unambiguously identified]] which words in the text are names.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10530090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the assistance of these techniques, MT has proven useful as a tool to assist human translators, and in some cases can even produce output that can be used "as is".@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10530100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, current systems are unable to produce output of the same quality as a human translator, particularly where the text to be translated uses casual language.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10530110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The history of machine translation begins in the 1950s, after [[World War II]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10530130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Georgetown-IBM experiment|Georgetown experiment]] (1954) involved fully-automatic translation of over sixty [[Russian language|Russian]] sentences into [[English language|English]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10530140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The experiment was a great success and ushered in an era of substantial funding for machine-translation research.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10530150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The authors claimed that within three to five years, machine translation would be a solved problem.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10530160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Real progress was much slower, however, and after the [[ALPAC|ALPAC report]] (1966), which found that the ten-year-long research had failed to fulfill expectations, funding was greatly reduced.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10530170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Beginning in the late 1980s, as [[computation]]al power increased and became less expensive, more interest was shown in [[statistical machine translation|statistical models for machine translation]].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10530180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The idea of using digital computers for translation of natural languages was proposed as early as 1946 by A.D.Booth and possibly others.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10530190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Georgetown experiment was by no means the first such application, and a demonstration was made in 1954 on the APEXC machine at Birkbeck College (London Univ.) of a rudimentary translation of English into French.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10530200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Several papers on the topic were published at the time, and even articles in popular journals (see for example Wireless World, Sept. 1955, Cleave and Zacharov).@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10530210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A similar application, also pioneered at Birkbeck College at the time, was reading and composing Braille texts by computer.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10530220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recently, Internet has emerged as global information infrastructure, revolutionizing access to any information, as well as fast information transfer and exchange.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10530230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using Internet and e-mail technology, people need to communicate rapidly over long distances across continent boundaries.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10530240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Not all of these Internet users, however, can use their own language for global communication to different people with different languages.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10530250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, using machine translation software, people can possibly communicate and contact one to another around the world in their own mother tongue, in the near future.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10530260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Translation process==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10530270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[translation process]] may be stated as:@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10530280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# [[Decoding]] the [[meaning (linguistic)|meaning]] of the [[source text]]; and@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10530290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# Re-[[encoding]] this [[meaning (linguistic)|meaning]] in the [[target language]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10530300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Behind this ostensibly simple procedure lies a complex [[cognitive]] operation.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10530310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To decode the meaning of the [[source text]] in its entirety, the translator must interpret and analyse all the features of the text, a process that requires in-depth knowledge of the [[grammar]], [[semantics]], [[syntax]], [[idiom]]s, etc., of the [[source language]], as well as the [[culture]] of its speakers.@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10530320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the [[target language]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10530330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therein lies the challenge in machine translation: how to program a computer that will "understand" a text as a person does, and that will "create" a new text in the [[target language]] that "sounds" as if it has been written by a person.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10530340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem may be approached in a number of ways.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10530350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Approaches==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine translation can use a method based on [[Expert System|linguistic rules]], which means that words will be translated in a linguistic way &mdash; the most suitable (orally speaking) words of the target language will replace the ones in the source language.@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10530370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is often argued that the success of machine translation requires the problem of [[natural language processing|natural language understanding]] to be solved first.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10530380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Generally, rule-based methods parse a text, usually creating an intermediary, symbolic representation, from which the text in the target language is generated.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10530390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the nature of the intermediary representation, an approach is described as [[interlingual machine translation]] or [[transfer-based machine translation]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10530400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These methods require extensive [[lexicon]]s with [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]], [[syntax|syntactic]], and [[semantics|semantic]] information, and large sets of rules.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10530410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Given enough data, machine translation programs often work well enough for a [[native speaker]] of one language to get the approximate meaning of what is written by the other native speaker.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10530420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The difficulty is getting enough data of the right kind to support the particular method.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10530430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the large multilingual [[Text corpus|corpus]] of data needed for statistical methods to work is not necessary for the grammar-based methods.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10530440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But then, the grammar methods need a skilled linguist to carefully design the grammar that they use.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10530450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To translate between closely related languages, a technique referred to as [[shallow-transfer machine translation]] may be used.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10530460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Rule-based===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rule-based machine translation paradigm includes transfer-based machine translation, interlingual machine translation and dictionary-based machine translation paradigms.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10530480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''''Transfer-based machine translation'''''@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10530490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''''Interlingual'''''@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Interlingual machine translation is one instance of rule-based machine-translation approaches.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10530510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this approach, the source language, i.e. the text to be translated, is transformed into an interlingual, i.e. source-/target-language-independent representation.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10530520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The target language is then generated out of the [[interlinguistics|interlingua]].@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10530530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''''Dictionary-based'''''@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine translation can use a method based on [[dictionary]] entries, which means that the words will be translated as they are by a dictionary.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10530550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Statistical===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Statistical machine translation tries to generate translations using [[statistical methods]] based on bilingual text corpora, such as the [[Hansard#Canadian hansard and machine translation|Canadian Hansard]] corpus, the English-French record of the Canadian parliament and [[EUROPARL]], the record of the [[European Parliament]].@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10530570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Where such corpora are available, impressive results can be achieved translating texts of a similar kind, but such corpora are still very rare.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10530580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first statistical machine translation software was [[CANDIDE]] from [[IBM]].@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10530590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google used [[SYSTRAN]] for several years, but has switched to a statistical translation method in October 2007.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10530600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recently, they improved their translation capabilities by inputting approximately 200 billion words from [[United Nations]] materials to train their system.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10530610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Accuracy of the translation has improved.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10530620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Example-based===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Example-based machine translation (EBMT) approach is often characterised by its use of a bilingual [[corpus]] as its main knowledge base, at run-time.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10530640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is essentially a translation by [[analogy]] and can be viewed as an implementation of [[case-based reasoning]] approach of [[machine learning]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10530650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Major issues==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10530660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Disambiguation===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Word sense disambiguation concerns finding a suitable translation when a word can have more than one meaning.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10530680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The problem was first raised in the 1950s by [[Yehoshua Bar-Hillel]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10530690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He pointed out that without a "universal encyclopedia", a machine would never be able to distinguish between the two meanings of a word.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10530700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today there are numerous approaches designed to overcome this problem.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10530710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They can be approximately divided into "shallow" approaches and "deep" approaches.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10530720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Shallow approaches assume no knowledge of the text.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10530730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They simply apply statistical methods to the words surrounding the ambiguous word.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10530740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Deep approaches presume a comprehensive knowledge of the word.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10530750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So far, shallow approaches have been more successful.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10530760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Named entities===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10530770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Related to [[named entity recognition]] in [[information extraction]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10530780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Applications==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10530790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are now many [[software]] programs for translating natural language, several of them [[online]], such as the [[SYSTRAN]] system which powers both [[Google]] translate and [[AltaVista]]'s [[Babel Fish (website)|Babel Fish]] as well as [[Promt]] that powers online translation services at Voila.fr and Orange.fr.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10530800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although no system provides the holy grail of "fully automatic high quality machine translation" (FAHQMT), many systems produce reasonable output.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10530810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Despite their inherent limitations, MT programs are used around the world.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10530820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Probably the largest institutional user is the [[European Commission]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10530830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Toggletext]] uses a transfer-based system (known as Kataku) to translate between [[English language|English]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]].@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10530840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Google]] has claimed that promising results were obtained using a proprietary statistical machine translation engine.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10530850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The statistical translation engine used in the [[Google tools#anchor_language_tools|Google language tools]] for Arabic <-> English and Chinese <-> English has an overall score of 0.4281 over the runner-up IBM's BLEU-4 score of 0.3954 (Summer 2006) in tests conducted by the National Institute for Standards and Technology.@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10530860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Uwe Muegge]] has implemented a demo website that uses a [[controlled language]] in combination with the [[Google tools#anchor_language_tools|Google tool]] to produce fully automatic, high-quality machine translations of his English, German, and French web sites.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10530870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the recent focus on terrorism, the military sources in the United States have been investing significant amounts of money in natural language engineering.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10530880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@''In-Q-Tel'' (a [[venture capital]] fund, largely funded by the US Intelligence Community, to stimulate new technologies through private sector entrepreneurs) brought up companies like [[Language Weaver]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10530890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Currently the military community is interested in translation and processing of languages like [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], and [[Dari language|Dari]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10530900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Information Processing Technology Office in [[DARPA]] hosts programs like [[DARPA TIDES program|TIDES]] and [[Babylon translator|Babylon Translator]].@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10530910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@US Air Force has awarded a $1 million contract to develop a language translation technology.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10530920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Evaluation ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10530930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are various means for evaluating the performance of machine-translation systems.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10530940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The oldest is the use of human judges to assess a translation's quality.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10530950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even though human evaluation is time-consuming, it is still the most reliable way to compare different systems such as rule-based and statistical systems.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10530960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Automate]]d means of evaluation include [[Bilingual evaluation understudy|BLEU]], [[NIST (metric)|NIST]] and [[METEOR]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10530970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Relying exclusively on machine translation ignores that communication in [[natural language|human language]] is [[wiktionary:context|context]]-embedded, and that it takes a human to adequately comprehend the context of the original text.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10530980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even purely human-generated translations are prone to error.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10530990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be of publishable quality and useful to a human, it must be reviewed and edited by a human.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10531000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has, however, been asserted that in certain applications, e.g. product descriptions written in a [[controlled language]], a [[dictionary-based machine translation|dictionary-based machine-translation]] system has produced satisfactory translations that require no human intervention.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10540010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Metadata</article>@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10540020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Metadata''' ('''meta data''', or sometimes '''metainformation''') is "data about data", of any sort in any media.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10540030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An item of metadata may describe an individual [[datum]], or content item, or a collection of data including multiple content items and hierarchical levels, for example a [[database schema]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10540040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Purpose ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10540050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata provides context for data.@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is used to facilitate the understanding, characteristics, and management usage of data.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10540070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata required for effective data management varies with the type of data and context of use.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10540080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a [[library]], where the data is the content of the titles stocked, metadata about a title would typically include a description of the content, the [[author]], the publication date and the physical location.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10540090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Examples of Metadata ==@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Camera ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10540110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of a [[camera]], where the data is the photographic image, metadata would typically include the date the [[photograph]] was taken and details of the camera settings (lens, focal length, aperture, shutter timing, white balance, etc.).@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10540120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Digital Music Player ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On a digital portable music player, the album names, song titles and album art embedded in the music files are used to generate the artist and song listings, and are considered the metadata.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10540140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Information system ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10540150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of an [[information system]], where the data is the content of the [[computer]] files, metadata about an individual data item would typically include the name of the field and its length.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10540160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata about a collection of data items, a computer file, might typically include the name of the file, the type of file and the name of the data administrator.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10540170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@''Italic text''@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10540180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Real world location ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If we consider a particular place in the real world, this may be described by data, for example:@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10540200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1 "E83BJ" .@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10540210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 2 "17"@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10540220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 3 "Sunny"@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10540230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To make sense of and use this data, context is important, and can be provided by metadata.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10540240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata for the above three items of data might include:@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10540250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1.1 "Post Code" – This is a brief description (or name) of the data item "E83BJ"@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10540260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1.2 "The unique identifier of a postal district" – This is another description (a definition) of "E83BJ"@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10540270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1.3 "27 June 2006" – This could also help describe "E83BJ", for example by giving the date it was last updated@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10540280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 2 "Average temperature in degrees Celsius" – This is a possible description of "17"@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10540290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 3 "Yesterday's weather" – This is a description of "sunny"@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10540300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An item of metadata is itself data and therefore may have its own metadata.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10540310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, "Post Code" might have the following metadata:@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10540320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1.1.1 "data item name"@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1.1.2 "5 characters, starting with A – Z"@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10540340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"27 June 2006" might have the following metadata:@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10540350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1.3.1 "date last changed"@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* 1.3.2 "dd MMM yyyy"@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Levels ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10540380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The hierarchy of metadata descriptions can go on forever, but usually context or semantic understanding makes extensively detailed explanations unnecessary.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10540390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The role played by any particular [[datum]] depends on the context.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10540400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, when considering the geography of London, "E83BJ" would be a datum and "Post Code" would be metadatum.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10540410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But, when considering the data management of an automated system that manages geographical data, "Post Code" might be a datum and then "data item name" and "5 characters, starting with A – Z" would be metadata.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10540420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In any particular context, metadata characterizes the data it describes, not the entity described by that data.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10540430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So, in relation to "E83BJ", the datum "is in London" is a further description of the place in the real world which has the post code "E83BJ", not of the code itself.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10540440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, although it is providing information connected to "E83BJ" (telling us that this is the post code of a place in London), this would not normally be considered metadata, as it is describing "E83BJ" ''qua'' place in the real world and not ''qua'' data.@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10540450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Definitions ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10540460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Etymology ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10540470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Meta]] is a classical Greek preposition (μετ’ αλλων εταιρων) and prefix (μεταβασις) conveying the following senses in English, depending upon the case of the associated noun: among; along with; with; by means of; in the midst of; after; behind.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10540480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[epistemology]], the word means "about (its own category)"; thus metadata is "data about the data".@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10540490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Varying definitions ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10540500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The term was introduced intuitively, without a formal definition.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10540510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because of that, today there are various definitions.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10540520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most common one is the literal translation:@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10540530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* "Data about data are referred to as metadata."@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10540540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Example: "12345" is data, and with no additional context is meaningless.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10540550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When "12345" is given a meaningful name (metadata) of "[[ZIP code]]", one can understand (at least in the [[United States]], and further placing "ZIP code" within the context of a [[postal address]]) that "12345" refers to the [[General Electric]] plant in [[Schenectady, New York]].@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10540560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As for most people the difference between data and [[information]] is merely a [[philosophical]] one of no relevance in practical use, other definitions are:@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10540570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Metadata is information about data.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10540580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Metadata is information about information.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10540590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Metadata contains information about that data or other data@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10540600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are more sophisticated definitions, such as:@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10540610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*"Metadata is structured, encoded data that describe characteristics of information-bearing entities to aid in the identification, discovery, assessment, and management of the described entities."@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10540620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* "[Metadata is a set of] optional structured descriptions that are publicly available to explicitly assist in locating objects."@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10540630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These are used more rarely because they tend to concentrate on one purpose of metadata — to find "objects", "entities" or "resources" — and ignore others, such as using metadata to optimize [[data compression|compression algorithms]], or to perform additional computations using the data.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10540640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata concept has been extended into the world of systems to include any "data about data": the names of tables, columns, programs, and the like.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10540650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Different views of this "system metadata" are detailed below, but beyond that is the recognition that metadata can describe all aspects of systems: data, activities, people and organizations involved, locations of data and processes, access methods, limitations, timing and events, as well as motivation and rules.@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10540660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Fundamentally, then, metadata is "the data that describe the structure and workings of an organization's use of information, and which describe the systems it uses to manage that information".@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10540670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To do a model of metadata is to do an "[[Enterprise modeling|Enterprise model]]" of the information technology industry itself.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10540680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Metadata and Markup ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of the web and the work of the [[W3C]] in providing markup technologies of [[HTML]], [[XML]] and [[SGML]] the concept of metadata has specific context that is perhaps clearer than in other information domains.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10540700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With markup technologies there is metadata, markup and data content.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10540710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata describes characteristics about the data, while the markup identifies the specific type of data content and acts as a container for that document instance.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10540720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This page in Wikipedia is itself an example of such usage, where the textual information is data, how it is packaged, linked, referenced, styled and displayed is markup and aspects and characteristics of that markup are metadata set globally across Wikipedia.@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10540730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the context of markup the metadata is architected to allow optimization of document instances to contain only a minimum amount of metadata, while the metadata itself is likely referenced externally such as in a [[schema]] definition ([[XSD]]) instance.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10540740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also it should be noted that markup provides specialised mechanisms that handle referential data, again avoiding confusion over what is metadata or data, and allowing optimizations.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10540750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The reference and ID mechanisms in markup allowing reference links between related data items, and links to data items that can then be repeated about a data item, such as an address or product details.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10540760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These are then all themselves simply more data items and markup instances rather than metadata.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10540770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly there are concepts such as classifications, ontologies and associations for which markup mechanisms are provided.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10540780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A data item can then be linked to such categories via markup and hence providing a clean delineation between what is metadata, and actual data instances.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10540790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore the concepts and descriptions in a classification would be metadata, but the actual classification entry for a data item is simply another data instance.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10540800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some examples can illustrate the points here.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10540810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Items in bold are data content, in italic are metadata, normal text items are all markup.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10540820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The two examples show in-line use of metadata within markup relating to a data instance (XML) compared to simple markup (HTML).@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10540830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A simple [[HTML]] instance example:@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@&lt;span style="normalText"&gt;'''Example'''&lt;/span&gt;@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10540850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@And then a [[XML]] instance example with metadata:@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10540860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<PersonMiddleName ''nillable="true"''>'''John'''</PersonMiddleName>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10540870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Where the inline assertion that a person's middle name may be an empty data item is metadata about the data item.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10540880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such definitions however are usually not placed inline in XML.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10540890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Instead these definitions are moved away into the [[schema]] definition that contains the metadata for the entire document instance.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10540900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This again illustrates another important aspect of metadata in the context of markup.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10540910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The metadata is optimally defined only once for a collection of data instances.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10540920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hence repeated items of markup are rarely metadata, but rather more markup data instances themselves.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10540930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Hierarchies of metadata ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10540940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When structured into a hierarchical arrangement, metadata is more properly called an [[Ontology (computer science)|ontology]] or [[schema]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10540950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both terms describe "what exists" for some purpose or to enable some action.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10540960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, the arrangement of subject headings in a library catalog serves not only as a guide to finding books on a particular subject in the stacks, but also as a guide to what subjects "exist" in the library's own ontology and how more specialized topics are related to or derived from the more general subject headings.@@@@1@57@@danf@17-8-2009
10540970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is frequently stored in a central location and used to help organizations standardize their data.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10540980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This information is typically stored in a [[metadata registry]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10540990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Difference between data and metadata ===@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10541000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Usually it is not possible to distinguish between (plain) data and metadata because:@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10541010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Something can be data and metadata at the same time.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10541020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The headline of an article is both its title (metadata) and part of its text (data).@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10541030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Data and metadata can change their roles.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10541040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A poem, as such, would be regarded as data, but if there were a song that used it as lyrics, the whole poem could be attached to an audio file of the song as metadata.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10541050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, the labeling depends on the point of view.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10541060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These considerations apply no matter which of the above definitions is considered, except where explicit markup is used to denote what is data and what is metadata.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10541070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Use ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10541080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata has many different applications; this section lists some of the most common.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10541090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is used to speed up and enrich searching for resources.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10541100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general, search queries using metadata can save users from performing more complex filter operations manually.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10541110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is now common for web browsers (with the notable exception of Mozilla Firefox), P2P applications and media management software to automatically download and locally cache metadata, to improve the speed at which files can be accessed and searched.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10541120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata may also be associated to files manually.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10541130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is often the case with documents which are scanned into a document storage repository such as FileNet or Documentum.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10541140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Once the documents have been converted into an electronic format a user brings the image up in a viewer application, manually reads the document and keys values into an online application to be stored in a metadata repository.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10541150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata provide additional information to users of the data it describes.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10541160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This information may be descriptive ("These pictures were taken by children in the school's third grade class.") or algorithmic ("Checksum=139F").@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10541170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata helps to bridge the [[semantic gap]].@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10541180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By telling a computer how data items are related and how these relations can be evaluated automatically, it becomes possible to process even more complex filter and search operations.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10541190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if a search engine understands that "Van Gogh" was a "Dutch painter", it can answer a search query on "Dutch painters" with a link to a web page about Vincent Van Gogh, although the exact words "Dutch painters" never occur on that page.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10541200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This approach, called knowledge representation, is of special interest to the [[semantic web]] and [[artificial intelligence]].@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10541210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Certain metadata is designed to optimize [[lossy compression]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10541220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if a video has metadata that allows a computer to tell foreground from background, the latter can be compressed more aggressively to achieve a higher compression rate.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10541230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some metadata is intended to enable variable content presentation.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10541240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if a picture has metadata that indicates the most important region — the one where there is a person — an image viewer on a small screen, such as on a mobile phone's, can narrow the picture to that region and thus show the user the most interesting details.@@@@1@51@@danf@17-8-2009
10541250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A similar kind of metadata is intended to allow blind people to access diagrams and pictures, by converting them for special output devices or reading their description using [[speech synthesis|text-to-speech]] software.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10541260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other descriptive metadata can be used to automate workflows.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10541270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if a "smart" software tool knows content and structure of data, it can convert it automatically and pass it to another "smart" tool as input.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10541280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, users save the many [[cut, copy and paste|copy-and-paste]] operations required when analyzing data with "dumb" tools.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10541290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is becoming an increasingly important part of [[electronic discovery]].@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10541295@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[http://www.lexbe.com/hp/indepth-e-discovery-rule-metadata.htm] Application and file system metadata derived from [[electronic document]]s and files can be important evidence.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10541300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recent changes to the [[Federal Rules of Civil Procedure]] make metadata routinely discoverable as part of [[Civil law (common law)|civil litigation]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10541310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Parties to litigation are required to maintain and produce metadata as part of [[discovery (law)|discovery]], and [[spoliation of evidence|spoliation]] of metadata can lead to sanctions.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10541320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata has become important on the [[World Wide Web]] because of the need to find useful information from the mass of information available.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10541330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Manually-created metadata adds value because it ensures consistency.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10541340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If a web page about a certain topic contains a word or phrase, then all web pages about that topic should contain that same word or phrase.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10541350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata also ensures variety, so that if a topic goes by two names each will be used.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10541360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, an article about "[[sport utility vehicle]]s" would also be [[tag (metadata)|tagged]] "4 wheel drives", "4WDs" and "four wheel drives", as this is how SUVs are known in some countries.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10541370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of metadata for an [[Compact Disc|audio CD]] include the [[MusicBrainz]] project and [[All Media Guide]]'s [[Allmusic]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10541380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, [[MP3]] files have metadata tags in a format called [[ID3]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10541390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Types of metadata ==@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10541400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata can be classified by:@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10541410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Content.@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10541420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata can either describe the ''resource'' itself (for example, name and size of a file) or the ''content'' of the resource (for example, "This video shows a boy playing football").@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10541430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Mutability.@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10541440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With respect to the whole resource, metadata can be either ''immutable'' (for example, the "Title" of a video does not change as the video itself is being played) or ''mutable'' (the "Scene description" does change).@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10541450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Logical function.@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10541460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are three layers of logical function: at the bottom the ''subsymbolic'' layer that contains the raw data itself, then the ''symbolic'' layer with metadata describing the raw data, and on the top the ''logical'' layer containing metadata that allows logical reasoning using the symbolic layer@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10541470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Important issues ==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10541480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To successfully develop and use metadata, several important issues should be treated with care:@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10541490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Metadata risks ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10541500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Microsoft Office]] files include metadata beyond their printable content, such as the original author's name, the creation date of the document, and the amount of time spent editing it.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10541510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unintentional disclosure can be awkward or even, in professional practices requiring confidentiality, raise malpractice concerns.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10541520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of Microsoft Office document's metadata can be seen by clicking ''File'' then ''Properties'' from the program's menu.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10541530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other metadata is not visible except through external analysis of a file, such as is done in forensics.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10541540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The author of the Microsoft Word-based [[Melissa (computer worm)|Melissa]] computer virus in 1999 was caught due to Word metadata that uniquely identified the computer used to create the original infected document.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10541550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Metadata lifecycle ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10541560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even in the early phases of planning and designing it is necessary to keep track of all metadata created.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10541570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is not economical to start attaching metadata only after the production process has been completed.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10541580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, if metadata created by a digital camera at recording time is not stored immediately, it may have to be restored afterwards manually with great effort.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10541590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, it is necessary for different groups of resource producers to cooperate using compatible methods and standards.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10541600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Manipulation.@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10541610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata must adapt if the resource it describes changes.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10541620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It should be merged when two resources are merged.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10541630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These operations are seldom performed by today's software; for example, image editing programs usually do not keep track of the [[Exchangeable image file format|Exif]] metadata created by digital cameras.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10541640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Destruction.@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10541650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It can be useful to keep metadata even after the resource it describes has been destroyed, for example in change histories within a text document or to archive file deletions due to digital rights management.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10541660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@None of today's metadata standards consider this phase.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10541670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Storage ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10541680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata can be stored either ''internally'', in the same file as the data, or ''externally'', in a separate file.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10541690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata that are embedded with content is called ''embedded metadata''.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10541700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A data repository typically stores the metadata ''detached'' from the data.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10541710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both ways have advantages and disadvantages:@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10541720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Internal storage allows transferring metadata together with the data it describes; thus, metadata is always at hand and can be manipulated easily.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10541730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This method creates high redundancy and does not allow holding metadata together.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10541740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* External storage allows bundling metadata, for example in a database, for more efficient searching.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10541750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is no redundancy and metadata can be transferred simultaneously when using [[streaming media|streaming]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10541760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, as most formats use [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URI]]s for that purpose, the method of how the metadata is linked to its data should be treated with care.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10541770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@What if a resource does not have a URI (resources on a local hard disk or web pages that are created on-the-fly using a content management system)?@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10541780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@What if metadata can only be evaluated if there is a connection to the Web, especially when using [[Resource Description Framework|RDF]]?@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10541790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@How to realize that a resource is replaced by another with the same name but different content?@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10541800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Moreover, there is the question of data format: storing metadata in a human-readable format such as XML can be useful because users can understand and edit it without specialized tools.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10541810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, these formats are not optimized for storage capacity; it may be useful to store metadata in a binary, non-human-readable format instead to speed up transfer and save memory.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10541820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Criticisms ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10541830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although the majority of computer scientists see metadata as a chance for better interoperability, some critics argue:@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10541840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Metadata is too expensive and time-consuming.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10541850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The argument is that companies will not produce metadata without need because it costs extra money, and private users also will not produce complex metadata because its creation is very time-consuming.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10541860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Metadata is too complicated.@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10541870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Private users will not create metadata because existing formats, especially [[MPEG-7]], are too complicated.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10541880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As long as there are no automatic tools for creating metadata, it will not be created.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10541890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Metadata is subjective and depends on context.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10541900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most probably, two persons will attach different metadata to the same resource due to their different points of view.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10541910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Moreover, metadata can be misinterpreted due to its dependency on context.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10541920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example searching for "post-modern art" may miss a certain item because the expression was not in use at the time when that work of art was created, or searching for "pictures taken at 1:00" may produce confusing results due to local time differences.@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10541930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* There is no end to metadata.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10541940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, when annotating a match of soccer with metadata, one can describe all the players and their actions in time and stop there.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10541950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One can also describe the advertisements in the background and the clothes the players wear.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10541960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One can also describe each fan on the tribune and the clothes they wear.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10541970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All of this metadata can be interesting to one party or another — such as the spectators, sponsors or a counter-terrorist unit of the police — and even for a simple resource the amount of possible metadata can be gigantic.@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10541980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Metadata is useless.@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10541990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of today's search engines are very efficient at finding text.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10542000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other techniques for finding pictures, videos and music (namely query-by-example) will become more and more powerful in the future.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10542010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, there is no real need for metadata.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10542020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The opposers of metadata sometimes use the term [[metacrap]] to refer to the unsolved problems of metadata in some scenarios.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10542030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These people are also referred to as "Meta Haters."@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10542040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Types ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10542050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general, there are two distinct classes of metadata: structural or control metadata and guide metadata.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10542060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Structural metadata is used to describe the structure of computer systems such as tables, columns and indexes.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10542070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Guide metadata is used to help humans find specific items and is usually expressed as a set of keywords in a natural language.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10542080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metatadata can be divided into 3 distinct categories:@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10542090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Descriptive@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10542100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Administrative@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10542110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Structural@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10542120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Relational database metadata ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10542130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each [[relational database]] system has its own mechanisms for storing metadata.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10542140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of relational-database metadata include:@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10542150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Tables of all tables in database, their names, sizes and number of rows in each table.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10542160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Tables of columns in each database, what tables they are used in, and the type of data stored in each column.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10542170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In database terminology, this set of metadata is referred to as the [[database catalog|catalog]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10542180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[SQL]] standard specifies a uniform means to access the catalog, called the <code>INFORMATION_SCHEMA</code>, but not all databases implement it, even if they implement other aspects of the SQL standard.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10542190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For an example of database-specific metadata access methods, see [[Oracle metadata]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10542200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Data warehouse metadata ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10542210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Data warehouse]] metadata systems are sometimes separated into two sections:@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10542220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''back room''' metadata that are used for [[Extract, transform, load]] functions to get [[OLTP]] data into a data warehouse@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10542230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''front room''' metadata that are used to label screens and create reports@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10542240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Kimball lists the following types of metadata in a data warehouse (See also [http://www.fortunecity.com/skyscraper/oracle/699/orahtml/dbmsmag/9803d05.html]):@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10542250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[source system]] metadata@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10542260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** source specifications, such as [[repository|repositories]], and source [[logical schema]]s@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10542270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** source descriptive information, such as ownership descriptions, update frequencies, legal limitations, and [[access method]]s@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10542280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** process information, such as job schedules and extraction code@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10542290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[data staging]] metadata@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10542300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** [[data acquisition]] information, such as [[data transmission]] scheduling and results, and file usage@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10542310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** [[dimension table]] management, such as definitions of dimensions, and [[surrogate key]] assignments@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10542320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** [[Program transformation|transformation]] and [[aggregation]], such as [[data enhancement]] and mapping, [[DBMS]] load scripts, and aggregate definitions@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10542330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** audit, job logs and documentation, such as [[data lineage]] records, [[data transform]] logs@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10542340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* DBMS metadata, such as:@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10542350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** DBMS system table contents@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10542360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** processing hints@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10542370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Michael Bracket defines metadata (what he calls "Data resource data") as "any data about the organization's data resource".@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10542380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Adrienne Tannenbaum defines metadata as "the detailed description of instance data.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10542390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The format and characteristics of populated instance data: instances and values, dependent on the role of the metadata recipient".@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10542400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These definitions are characteristic of the "data about data" definition.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10542410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Business Intelligence metadata ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10542420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Business Intelligence]] is the process of analyzing large amounts of corporate data, usually stored in large databases such as the [[Data Warehouse]], tracking business performance, detecting patterns and trends, and helping enterprise business users make better decisions.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10542430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Business Intelligence metadata describes how data is queried, filtered, analyzed, and displayed in Business Intelligence software tools, such as Reporting tools, OLAP tools, Data Mining tools.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10542440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples:@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10542450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Online analytical processing|OLAP]] metadata: The descriptions and structures of Dimensions, Cubes, Measures (Metrics), Hierarchies, Levels, Drill Paths@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10542460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Reporting metadata: The descriptions and structures of Reports, Charts, Queries, DataSets, Filters, Variables, Expressions@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10542470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Data Mining]] metadata: The descriptions and structures of DataSets, Algorithms, Queries@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10542480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Business Intelligence metadata can be used to understand how corporate financial reports reported to [[Wall Street]] are calculated, how the revenue, expense and profit are aggregated from individual sales transactions stored in the data warehouse.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10542490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A good understanding of Business Intelligence metadata is required to solve complex problems such as compliance with corporate governance standards, such as [[Sarbanes Oxley]] (SOX) or Basel II.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10542500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== General IT metadata ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10542510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In contrast, David Marco, another metadata theorist, defines metadata as "all physical data and knowledge from inside and outside an organization, including information about the physical data, technical and business processes, rules and constraints of the data, and structures of the data used by a corporation."@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10542520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others have included web services, systems and interfaces.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10542530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In fact, the entire [[Zachman framework]] (see [[Enterprise Architecture]]) can be represented as metadata.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10542540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Notice that such definitions expand metadata's scope considerably, to encompass most or all of the data required by the [[Management Information System]]s capability.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10542550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In this sense, the concept of metadata has significant overlaps with the [[ITIL]] concept of a Configuration Management Database ([[CMDB]]), and also with disciplines such as [[Enterprise Architecture]] and [[IT portfolio management]].@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10542560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This broader definition of metadata has precedent.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10542570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Third generation corporate repository products (such as those eventually merged into the CA Advantage line) not only store information about data definitions (COBOL copybooks, DBMS schema), but also about the programs accessing those data structures, and the [[Job Control Language]] and batch job infrastructure dependencies as well.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10542580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These products (some of which are still in production) can provide a very complete picture of a mainframe computing environment, supporting exactly the kinds of impact analysis required for ITIL-based processes such as [[ITIL#Incident Management|Incident]] and [[Change Management (ITIL)|Change Management]].@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10542590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[ITIL]] [http://www.tso.co.uk/itil/ Back Catalogue] includes the ''Data Management'' volume which recognizes the role of these metadata products on the mainframe, posing the [[CMDB]] as the distributed computing equivalent.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10542600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@CMDB vendors however have generally not expanded their scope to include data definitions, and metadata solutions are also available in the distributed world.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10542610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Determining the appropriate role and scope for each is thus a challenge for large IT organizations requiring the services of both.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10542620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since metadata is pervasive, centralized attempts at tracking it need to focus on the most highly leveraged assets.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10542630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Enterprise Assets may only constitute a small percentage of the entire IT portfolio.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10542640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some practitioners have successfully managed IT metadata using the [[Dublin Core]] metamodel.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10542650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==== IT metadata management products ====@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10542660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@First generation data dictionary/metadata repository tools would be those only supporting a specific [[DBMS]], such as [[IDMS]]'s IDD (integrated data dictionary), the [[Information Management System|IMS]] Data Dictionary, and [[ADABAS]]'s Predict.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10542670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Second generation would be ASG's DATAMANAGER product which could support many different file and DBMS types.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10542680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Third generation repository products became briefly popular in the early 1990s along with the rise of widespread use of [[RDBMS]] engines such as IBM's [[IBM DB2|DB2]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10542690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Fourth generation products link the repository with more [[Extract, transform, load]] tools and can be connected with architectural modeling tools.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10542700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples include [http://www.adaptive.com/products/mm.html Adaptive Metadata Manager] from Adaptive, [http://www.asg.com/products/product_details.asp?code=ROC&id=50 Rochade] from ASG,[http://www.infolibcorp.com/productsOverview.html InfoLibrarian Metadata Integration Framework] and [[Troux Technologies]] Metis Server product.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10542710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== File system metadata ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10542720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nearly all [[file system]]s keep metadata about files [[out-of-band]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10542730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some systems keep metadata in [[directory (file systems)|directory]] entries; others in specialized structure like [[inode]]s or even in the name of a file.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10542740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata can range from simple [[timestamp]]s, [[mode bit]]s, and other special-purpose information used by the implementation itself, to [[icon (computing)|icon]]s and free-text comments, to arbitrary [[attribute-value pair]]s.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10542750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With more complex and open-ended metadata, it becomes useful to search for files based on the metadata contents.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10542760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Unix]] [[find]] utility was an early example, although inefficient when scanning hundreds of thousands of files on a modern computer system.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10542770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Apple Computer]]'s [[Mac OS X]] operating system supports cataloguing and searching for file metadata through a feature known as [[Spotlight (software)|Spotlight]], as of [[Mac OS X v10.4|version 10.4]].@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10542780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Microsoft]] worked in the development of similar functionality with the [[Instant Search]] system in [[Windows Vista]], as well as being present in [[SharePoint Server]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10542790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Linux]] implements file metadata using [[extended file attributes]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10542800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Image metadata ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10542810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of image files containing metadata include [[Exchangeable image file format]] (EXIF) and [[Tagged Image File Format]] (TIFF).@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10542820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Having metadata about images embedded in TIFF or EXIF files is one way of acquiring additional data about an image.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10542830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Tag (metadata)|Tagging]] pictures with subjects, related emotions, and other descriptive phrases helps Internet users find pictures easily rather than having to search through entire image collections.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10542840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A prime example of an image tagging service is [[Flickr]], where users upload images and then describe the contents.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10542850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other patrons of the site can then search for those tags.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10542860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Flickr uses a [[folksonomy]]: a free-text keyword system in which the community defines the vocabulary through use rather than through a [[controlled vocabulary]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10542870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Users can also tag photos for organization purposes using Adobe's [[Extensible Metadata Platform]] (XMP) language, for example.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10542880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Digital photography is increasingly making use of technical metadata tags describing the conditions of exposure.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10542890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Photographers shooting [[RAW image format|Camera RAW]] file formats can use applications such as [[Adobe Bridge]] or Apple Computer's [[Aperture (photography software)|Aperture]] to work with camera metadata for post-processing.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10542900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Audio Metadata ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10542910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Audio metadata generally relates to the how the data should be written in order for a processor to efficiently process it.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10542920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These technologies are usually seen in Audio Engine Programming such as Microsoft [[Resource Interchange File Format|RIFF (Resource Interchange File Format)]] technologies for .wave file.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10542930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Codes generally develop their own metadata standards for compression purpose.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10542940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Program metadata ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10542950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata is casually used to describe the controlling data used in software architectures that are more abstract or configurable.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10542960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most '''[[executable|executable file]]''' formats include what may be termed "metadata" that specifies certain, usually configurable, behavioral [[runtime]] characteristics.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10542970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it is difficult if not impossible to precisely distinguish program "metadata" from general aspects of [[Von Neumann architecture|stored-program computing architecture]]; if the machine reads it and acts upon it, it is a computational [[Instruction (computer science)|instruction]], and the prefix "meta" has little significance.@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10542980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[Java (programming language)|Java]], the [[Class (file format)|class file format]] contains metadata used by the [[Java compiler]] and the [[Java virtual machine]] to [[dynamic linking|dynamically link]] [[class (computer science)|classes]] and to support [[reflection (computer science)|reflection]].@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10542990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[J2SE]] 5.0 version of Java included a [[metadata facility for Java|metadata facility]] to allow additional annotations that are used by [[development tool]]s.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10543000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[MS-DOS]], the [[COM file]] format does ''not'' include metadata, while the [[EXE]] file and Windows [[Portable Executable|PE]] formats do.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10543010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These metadata can include the company that published the program, the date the program was created, the version number and more.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10543020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the [[.NET Framework|Microsoft .NET]] executable format, extra metadata is included to allow [[Reflection (computer science)|reflection]] at runtime.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10543030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Existing software metadata ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10543040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Object Management Group]] (OMG) has defined metadata format for representing entire existing applications for the purposes of [[software mining]], [[software modernization]] and software assurance.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10543050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This specification, called the OMG [[Knowledge Discovery Metamodel]] (KDM) is the OMG's foundation for "modeling in reverse".@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10543060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@KDM is a common language-independent intermediate representation that provides an integrated view of an entire enterprise application, including its behavior (program flow), data, and structure.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10543070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the applications of KDM is Business Rules Mining.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10543080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Knowledge Discovery Metamodel]] includes a fine grained low-level representation (called "micro KDM"), suitable for performing static analysis of programs.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10543090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Document metadata ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10543100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most programs that create documents, including Microsoft [[SharePoint]], [[Microsoft Office Word|Microsoft Word]] and other [[Microsoft Office]] products, save metadata with the document files.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10543110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These metadata can contain the name of the person who created the file (obtained from the operating system), the name of the person who last edited the file, how many times the file has been printed, and even how many revisions have been made on the file.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10543120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other saved material, such as deleted text (saved in case of an undelete command), document comments and the like, is also commonly referred to as "metadata", and the inadvertent inclusion of this material in distributed files has sometimes led to undesirable disclosures.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10543130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Document Metadata is particularly important in legal environments where litigation can request this sensitive information (metadata) which can include many elements of private detrimental data.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10543140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This data has been linked to multiple lawsuits that have got corporations into legal complications.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10543150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many legal firms today use "Metadata Management Software", also known as "Metadata Removal Tools".@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10543160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This software can be used to clean documents before they are sent outside of their firm.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10543170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This process, known as metadata management, protects lawfirms from potentially unsafe leaking of sensitive data through [[Electronic Discovery]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10543180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For a list of executable formats, see [[object file]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10543190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Metamodels ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10543200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata on Models are called [[Metamodel]]s.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10543210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[Model Driven Engineering]], a [[Model (abstract)|Model]] has to conform to a given [[Metamodel]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10543220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the [[model-driven architecture|MDA]] guide, a metamodel is a model and each model conforms to a given metamodel.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10543230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Meta-modeling]] allows strict and agile automatic processing of models and metamodels.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10543240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Object Management Group]] (OMG) defines 4 layers of meta-modeling.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10543250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each level of modeling is defined, validated by the next layer:@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10543260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*M0: instance object, data row, record -> "John Smith"@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10543270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* M1: model, schema -> "Customer" UML Class or database Table@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10543280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* M2: metamodel -> [[Unified Modeling Language]] (UML), [[Common Warehouse Metamodel]] (CWM), [[Knowledge Discovery Metamodel]] (KDM)@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10543290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* M3: meta-metamodel -> [[Meta-Object Facility]] (MOF)@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10543300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Meta-metadata ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10543310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since metadata are also data, it is possible to have metadata of metadata&ndash;"meta-metadata."@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10543320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Machine-generated meta-metadata, such as the reversed index created by a free-text search engine, is generally not considered metadata, though.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10543330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Digital library metadata ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10543340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are three categories of metadata that are frequently used to describe objects in a digital library:@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10543350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''descriptive''' - Information describing the intellectual content of the object, such as [[MARC]] cataloguing records, finding aids or similar schemes.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10543360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is typically used for bibliographic purposes and for search and retrieval.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10543370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''structural''' - Information that ties each object to others to make up logical units (e.g., information that relates individual images of pages from a book to the others that make up the book).@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10543380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''administrative''' - Information used to manage the object or control access to it.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10543390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This may include information on how it was scanned, its storage format, [[copyright]] and licensing information, and information necessary for the [[digital preservation|long-term preservation]] of the digital objects.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10543400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Geospatial metadata ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10543410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Metadata that describe geographic objects (such as datasets, maps, features, or simply documents with a geospatial component) have a history going back to at least 1994 (refer [http://libraries.mit.edu/guides/subjects/metadata/standards/fgdc.html MIT Library page on FGDC Metadata]).@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10543420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This class of metadata is described more fully on the [[Geospatial metadata]] page.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10550010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Microsoft Windows</article>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10550020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Microsoft Windows''' is a series of [[software]] [[operating system]]s produced by [[Microsoft]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10550030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named ''Windows'' in November 1985 as an add-on to [[MS-DOS]] in response to the growing interest in [[graphical user interface]]s (GUIs).@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10550040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft Windows came to [[Market dominance|dominate]] the world's [[personal computer]] market, overtaking [[Mac OS]], which had been introduced previously.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10550050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the 2004 [[International Data Corporation|IDC]] Directions conference, it was stated that Windows had approximately 90% of the [[Client (computing)|client]] operating system market.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10550060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most recent client version of Windows is [[Windows Vista]]; the current [[Server (computing)|server]] version is [[Windows Server 2008]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10550070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Versions==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10550080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The term ''Windows'' collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft (MS) operating system (OS) products.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10550090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These products are generally categorized as follows:@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10550100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===16-bit operating environments===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10550110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The early versions of Windows were often thought of as just graphical user interfaces, mostly because they ran on top of [[MS-DOS]] and used it for [[file system]] services.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10550120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, even the earliest 16-bit Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions, notably, having their own [[executable file format]] and providing their own [[device driver]]s (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound) for applications.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10550130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike [[MS-DOS]], Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through [[computer multitasking|cooperative multitasking]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10550140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Finally, Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allowed it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and [[resource (Windows)|resource]]s were swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce, and data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control, typically waiting for user input.@@@@1@54@@danf@17-8-2009
10550150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@16-bit Windows versions include [[Windows 1.0]] (1985), [[Windows 2.0]] (1987) and its close relatives, ''[[Windows 2.1x|Windows/286-Windows/386]]''.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10550160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Hybrid 16/32-bit operating environments===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10550170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Windows 2.1x|Windows/386]] introduced a 32-bit [[protected mode]] [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] and [[virtual machine]] monitor.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10550180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For the duration of a Windows session, it created one or more [[virtual 8086 mode|virtual 8086 environments]] and provided device virtualization for the video card, keyboard, mouse, timer and [[interrupt]] controller inside each of them.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10550190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The user-visible consequence was that it became possible to preemptively multitask multiple MS-DOS environments in separate windows, although graphical MS-DOS applications required full screen mode.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10550200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, Windows applications were multi-tasked cooperatively inside one such virtual 8086 environment.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10550210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Windows 3.0]] (1990) and [[Windows 3.1x|Windows 3.1]] (1992) improved the design, mostly because of [[virtual memory]] and loadable virtual device drivers ([[VxD]]s) which allowed them to share arbitrary devices between multitasked DOS windows.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10550220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, Windows applications could now run in protected mode (when Windows was running in Standard or 386 Enhanced Mode), which gave them access to several megabytes of memory and removed the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme.@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10550230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They still ran inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provided a degree of protection, and multi-tasked cooperatively.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10550240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For Windows 3.0, Microsoft also rewrote critical operations from [[C (programming language)|C]] into [[Assembly language|assembly]], making this release faster and less memory-hungry than its predecessors.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10550250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Hybrid 16/32-bit operating systems===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10550260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the introduction of the [[32-bit]] [[Windows 3.1x|Windows for Workgroups 3.11]], Windows was able to stop relying on DOS for file management.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10550270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Leveraging this, [[Windows 95]] introduced [[Long filename|Long File Names]], reducing the [[8.3 filename]] DOS environment to the role of a [[boot loader]].@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10550280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@MS-DOS was now bundled with Windows; this notably made it (partially) aware of long file names when its utilities were run from within Windows.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10550290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most important novelty was the possibility of running 32-bit multi-threaded preemptively multitasked graphical programs.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10550300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the necessity of keeping compatibility with 16-bit programs meant the GUI components were still 16-bit only and not fully reentrant, which resulted in reduced performance and stability.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10550310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There were three releases of Windows 95 (the first in 1995, then subsequent bug-fix versions in 1996 and 1997, only released to OEMs, which added extra features such as [[File Allocation Table|FAT32]] and primitive USB support).@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10550320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft's next OS was [[Windows 98]]; there were two versions of this (the first in 1998 and the second, named "Windows 98 Second Edition", in 1999).@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10550330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2000, Microsoft released [[Windows Me]] (''Me'' standing for ''Millennium Edition''), which used the same core as Windows 98 but adopted some aspects of Windows 2000 and removed the option boot into DOS mode.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10550340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It also added a new feature called System Restore, allowing the user to set the computer's settings back to an earlier date.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10550350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===32-bit operating systems===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10550360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The NT family of Windows systems was fashioned and marketed for higher reliability business use, and was unencumbered by any Microsoft DOS patrimony.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10550370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first release was [[Windows NT 3.1]] (1993, numbered "3.1" to match the Windows version and to one-up [[OS/2]] 2.1, IBM's flagship OS co-developed by Microsoft and was Windows NT's main competitor at the time), which was followed by [[Windows NT 3.5|NT 3.5]] (1994), [[Windows NT 3.51|NT 3.51]] (1995), [[Windows NT 4.0|NT 4.0]] (1996), and [[Windows 2000]] (essentially NT 5.0).@@@@1@60@@danf@17-8-2009
10550380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@NT 4.0 was the first in this line to implement the "Windows 95" user interface (and the first to include Windows 95's built-in 32-bit runtimes).@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10550390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft then moved to combine their consumer and business operating systems.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10550400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Windows XP]], coming in both home and professional versions (and later niche market versions for [[tablet PC]]s and [[media center]]s) improved stability, user experience and backwards compatibility.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10550410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Then, [[Windows Server 2003]] brought [[Windows Server]] up to date with Windows XP.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10550420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since then, a new version, [[Windows Vista]] was released and [[Windows Server 2008]], released on [[February 27]], [[2008]], brings [[Windows Server]] up to date with [[Windows Vista]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10550430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Windows CE]], Microsoft's offering in the mobile and embedded markets, is also a true 32-bit operating system that offers various services for all sub-operating workstations.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10550440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===64-bit operating systems===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10550450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Windows NT]] included support for several different platforms before the [[X86 architecture|x86]]-based [[personal computer]] became dominant in the professional world.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10550460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Versions of NT from 3.1 to 4.0 variously supported [[PowerPC]], [[DEC Alpha]] and [[MIPS Technologies|MIPS]] R4000, some of which were 64-bit processors, although the operating system treated them as 32-bit processors.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10550470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the introduction of the [[Intel]] [[Itanium]] architecture, which is referred to as [[IA-64]], Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10550480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Itanium versions of [[Windows XP]] and [[Windows Server 2003]] were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 (32-bit) counterparts.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10550490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[April 25]] [[2005]], Microsoft released [[Windows XP Professional x64 Edition]] and x64 versions of Windows Server 2003 to support the [[x86-64|AMD64/Intel64]] (or ''x64'' in Microsoft terminology) architecture.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10550500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft dropped support for the Itanium version of Windows XP in 2005.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10550510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Windows Vista]] is the first end-user version of Windows that Microsoft has released simultaneously in 32-bit and x64 editions.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10550520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows Vista does not support the Itanium architecture.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10550530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The modern 64-bit Windows family comprises AMD64/Intel64 versions of [[Windows Vista]], and [[Windows Server 2003]] and [[Windows Server 2008]], in both Itanium and x64 editions.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10550540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10550550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft has taken two parallel routes in its operating systems.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10550560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One route has been for the home user and the other has been for the professional IT user.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10550570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dual routes have generally led to home versions having greater [[multimedia]] support and less functionality in networking and security, and professional versions having inferior multimedia support and better networking and security.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10550580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first version of Microsoft Windows, [[Windows 1.0|version 1.0]], released in November 1985, lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity, and was to compete with Apple's own operating system.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10550590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10550600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft Windows version 2.0 was released in November, 1987 and was slightly more popular than its predecessor.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10550610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows 2.03 (release date January 1988) had changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10550620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10550630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft Windows version 3.0, released in 1990, was the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months.[http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/compsoft/soft1991.htm][http://www.thocp.net/companies/microsoft/microsoft_company.htm]@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10550635@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It featured improvements to the user interface and to multitasking capabilities.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10550640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It received a facelift in Windows 3.1, made generally available on [[March 1]], [[1992]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10550650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows 3.1 support ended on [[December 31]], [[2001]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10550660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In July 1993, Microsoft released [[Windows NT]] based on a new kernel.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10550670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@NT was considered to be the professional OS and was the first Windows version to utilize [[preemptive multitasking]]..@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10550680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows NT would later be retooled to also function as a home operating system, with Windows XP.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10550690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On August 24th 1995, Microsoft released [[Windows 95]], a new, and major, consumer version that made further changes to the user interface, and also used [[preemptive multitasking]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10550700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows 95 was designed to replace not only Windows 3.1, but also Windows for Workgroups, and MS-DOS.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10550710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was also the first Windows operating system to use Plug and Play capabilities.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10550720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The changes Windows 95 brought to the desktop were revolutionary, as opposed to evolutionary, such as those in Windows 98 and Windows Me.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10550730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Mainstream support for [[Windows 95]] ended on [[December 31]], [[2000]] and extended support for [[Windows 95]] ended on [[December 31]], [[2001]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10550740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The next in the consumer line was Microsoft [[Windows 98]] released on June 25th, 1998.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10550750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was substantially criticized for its slowness and for its unreliability compared with [[Windows 95]], but many of its basic problems were later rectified with the release of [[Windows 98]] Second Edition in 1999.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10550760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Mainstream support for [[Windows 98]] ended on [[June 30]], [[2002]] and extended support for [[Windows 98]] ended on [[July 11]], [[2006]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10550770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As part of its "professional" line, Microsoft released [[Windows 2000]] in February 2000.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10550780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The consumer version following Windows 98 was [[Windows Me]] (Windows Millennium Edition).@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10550790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Released in September 2000, [[Windows Me]] implemented a number of new technologies for Microsoft: most notably publicized was "[[Universal Plug and Play]]."@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10550800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In October 2001, Microsoft released [[Windows XP]], a version built on the Windows NT [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] that also retained the consumer-oriented usability of Windows 95 and its successors.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10550810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This new version was widely praised in computer magazines.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10550820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It shipped in two distinct editions, "Home" and "Professional", the former lacking many of the superior security and networking features of the Professional edition.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10550830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, the first "Media Center" edition was released in 2002, with an emphasis on support for DVD and TV functionality including program recording and a remote control.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10550840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Mainstream support for [[Windows XP]] will continue until [[April 14]], [[2009]] and extended support will continue until [[April 8]], [[2014]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10550850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In April 2003, [[Windows Server 2003]] was introduced, replacing the [[Windows 2000]] line of server products with a number of new features and a strong focus on security; this was followed in December 2005 by Windows Server 2003 R2.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10550860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[January 30]], [[2007]] Microsoft released [[Windows Vista]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10550870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It contains a number of [[Features new to Windows Vista|new features]], from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant [[Technical features new to Windows Vista|technical changes]], with a particular focus on [[Security and safety features new to Windows Vista|security features]].@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10550880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is available in a number of [[Windows Vista editions and pricing|different editions]], and has been subject to [[Criticism of Windows Vista|some criticism]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10550890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Timeline of releases==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10550900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Security==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10550910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Computer security|Security]] has been a hot topic with Windows for many years, and even Microsoft itself has been the victim of security breaches.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10550920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Consumer versions of Windows were originally designed for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network connection, and did not have security features built in from the outset.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10550930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Windows NT]] and its successors are designed for security (including on a network) and multi-user PCs, but are not designed with Internet security in mind as much since, when it was first developed in the early 1990s, Internet use was less prevalent.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10550940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These design issues combined with flawed code (such as [[buffer overflow]]s) and the popularity of Windows means that it is a frequent target of [[computer worm|worm]] and [[computer virus|virus]] writers.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10550950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In June 2005, [[Bruce Schneier]]'s ''Counterpane Internet Security'' reported that it had seen over 1,000 new viruses and worms in the previous six months.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10550960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft releases security patches through its [[Windows Update]] service approximately once a month (usually the second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10550970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Windows 2000 (SP3 and later), Windows XP and Windows Server 2003, updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10550980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Service Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003, were installed by users more quickly than it otherwise might have been.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10550990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Windows Defender===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10551000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[6 January]] [[2005]], Microsoft released a beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the previously released [[GIANT Company Software|Giant]] AntiSpyware.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10551010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[14 February]], [[2006]], Microsoft AntiSpyware became [[Windows Defender]] with the release of beta 2.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10551020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows Defender is a freeware program designed to protect against spyware and other unwanted software.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10551030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Windows XP]] and [[Windows Server 2003]] users who have [[Windows Genuine Advantage|genuine]] copies of Microsoft Windows can freely download the program from Microsoft's web site, and Windows Defender ships as part of [[Windows Vista]].@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10551040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Third-party analysis===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10551050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In an article based on a report by Symantec, internetnews.com has described Microsoft Windows as having the "fewest number of patches and the shortest average patch development time of the five operating systems it monitored in the last six months of 2006."@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10551060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@And the number of vulnerabilities found in Windows has significantly increased— Windows: 12+, Red Hat + Fedora: 2, Mac OS X: 1, HP-UX: 2, Solaris: 1.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10551070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A study conducted by [[Kevin Mitnick]] and marketing communications firm Avantgarde in 2004 found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before it was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched [[Windows Server 2003]] system was compromised after being connected to the internet for 8 hours.@@@@1@58@@danf@17-8-2009
10551080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it is important to note that this study does not apply to Windows XP systems running the Service Pack 2 update (released in late 2004), which vastly improved the security of Windows XP.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10551090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The computer that was running Windows XP Service Pack 2 was not compromised.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10551100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[AOL]] National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004 determined that 80% of Windows users were infected by at least one [[spyware]]/[[adware]] product.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10551110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Much documentation is available describing how to increase the security of Microsoft Windows products.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10551120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a hardware or software [[firewall]], running [[anti-virus]] and [[anti-spyware]] software, and installing patches as they become available through [[Windows Update]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10551130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Windows Lifecycle Policy==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10551140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft has stopped releasing updates and hotfixes for many old Windows operating systems, including all versions of Windows 9x and earlier versions of Windows NT.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10551150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows versions prior to [[Windows XP|XP]] are no longer supported, with the exception of [[Windows 2000]], which is currently in the Extended Support Period, that will end on [[July 13]], [[2010]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10551160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Windows XP versions prior to SP2 are no longer supported either.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10551170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, support for [[Windows XP 64-bit Edition]] ended after the release of the more recent [[Windows XP Professional x64 Edition]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10551180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@No new updates are created for unsupported versions of Windows.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10551190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Emulation software==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10551200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Emulation allows the use of some Windows applications without using Microsoft Windows.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10551210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These include:@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10551220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Wine (software)|Wine]] - a [[free and open source software]] implementation of the [[Windows API]], allowing one to run many Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including [[Linux]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10551230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Wine is technically not an emulator but a "compatibility layer"; while an emulator effectively 'pretends' to be a different CPU, Wine instead makes use of Windows-style APIs to 'simulate' the Windows environment directly.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10551240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** [[CrossOver]] - A Wine package with licensed fonts.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10551250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its developers are regular contributors to Wine, and focus on Wine running officially supported applications.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10551260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** [[Cedega]] - [[TransGaming Technologies]]' proprietary [[Fork (software development)|fork]] of Wine, designed specifically for running games written for Microsoft Windows under Linux.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10551270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** [[Darwine]] - This project intends to port and develop Wine as well as other supporting tools that will allow [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] and [[Mac OS X]] users to run Microsoft Windows applications, and to provide [[Win32]] [[Application Programming Interface|API]] compatibility at application source code level.@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10551280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[ReactOS]] - An open-source OS that is intended to run the same software as Windows, originally designed to imitate Windows NT 4.0, now aiming at Windows XP compatibility.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10551290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has been in the [[development stage]] since 1996.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009