10320010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Google</article>@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10320020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Google Inc.''' ( and ) is an [[United States|American]] [[public company|public corporation]], earning revenue from [[AdWords|advertising]] related to its [[Google search|Internet search]], [[Gmail|web-based e-mail]], [[Google Maps|online mapping]], [[Google Apps|office productivity]], [[Orkut|social networking]], and [[YouTube|video sharing]] services as well as selling advertising-free versions of the [[Google Search Appliance|same technologies]].@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10320030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's headquarters, the [[Googleplex]], is located in [[Mountain View, California]].@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10320040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of [[June 30]] [[2008]] the company has 19,604 full-time employees.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10320050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of [[October 31]], [[2007]], it is the largest American company (by [[market capitalization]]) that is not part of the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10320060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google was co-founded by [[Larry Page]] and [[Sergey Brin]] while they were students at [[Stanford University]] and the company was first incorporated as a [[privately held company]] on [[September 7]], [[1998]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10320070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's [[initial public offering]] took place on [[August 19]], [[2004]], raising [[United States dollar|US$]]1.67 billion, making it worth US$23 billion.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10320080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has continued its growth through a series of new product developments, [[List of Google acquisitions|acquisitions]], and [[Google#Partnerships|partnerships]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10320090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Google#Environmentalism|Environmentalism]], [[Google.org|philanthropy]], and [[Google#Corporate affairs and culture|positive employee relations]] have been important tenets during Google's growth, the latter resulting in being identified multiple times as [[Fortune Magazine|Fortune Magazine's]] #1 Best Place to Work.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10320100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company's unofficial slogan is "[[Don't be evil]]", although [[criticism of Google]] include concerns regarding the [[privacy]] of personal information, [[copyright]], [[censorship by Google|censorship]], and discontinuation of services.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10320110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10320120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google began in January 1996, as a research project by [[Larry Page]], who was soon joined by [[Sergey Brin]], two [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] students at [[Stanford University]] in [[California]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10320130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They hypothesized that a search engine that analyzed the relationships between websites would produce better ranking of results than existing techniques, which ranked results according to the number of times the search term appeared on a page.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10320140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Their search engine was originally nicknamed "BackRub" because the system checked [[backlinks]] to estimate a site's importance.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10320150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A small search engine called Rankdex was already exploring a similar strategy.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10320160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other highly relevant web pages must be the most relevant pages associated with the search, Page and Brin tested their thesis as part of their studies, and laid the foundation for their search engine.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10320170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Originally, the search engine used the [[Stanford University]] website with the domain ''google.stanford.edu''.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10320180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The domain ''google.com'' was registered on [[September 15]], [[1997]], and the company was incorporated as ''Google Inc.'' on [[September 7]], [[1998]] at a friend's garage in [[Menlo Park, California]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10320190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The total initial investment raised for the new company amounted to almost US$1.1 million, including a US$100,000 check by [[Andy Bechtolsheim]], one of the founders of [[Sun Microsystems]].@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10320200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In March 1999, the company moved into offices in [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]], home to several other noted [[Silicon Valley]] technology startups.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10320210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After quickly outgrowing two other sites, the company leased a complex of buildings in [[Mountain View, Santa Clara County, California|Mountain View]] at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway from [[Silicon Graphics]] (SGI) in 2003.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10320220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company has remained at this location ever since, and the complex has since come to be known as the [[Googleplex]] (a play on the word [[googolplex]]).@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10320230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, Google bought the property from SGI for US$319 million.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10320240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Google search engine attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users, who liked its simple design and usability.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10320250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2000, Google began selling [[advertising|advertisements]] associated with search [[keyword (internet search)|keywords]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10320260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ads were text-based to maintain an uncluttered page design and to maximize page loading speed.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10320270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Keywords were sold based on a combination of price bid and clickthroughs, with bidding starting at US$.05 per click.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10320280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This model of selling keyword advertising was pioneered by [[Yahoo! Search Marketing|Goto.com]] (later renamed Overture Services, before being acquired by [[Yahoo!]] and rebranded as [[Yahoo! Search Marketing]]).@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10320290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While many of its [[dot-com]] rivals failed in the new Internet marketplace, Google quietly rose in stature while generating revenue.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10320300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The name "Google" originated from a common misspelling of the word "[[googol]]", which refers to 10<sup>100</sup>, the number represented by a 1 followed by one hundred zeros.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10320310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Having found its way increasingly into everyday language, the verb "[[google (verb)|google]]", was added to the ''[[Merriam-Webster|Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary]]'' and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' in 2006, meaning "to use the Google search engine to obtain information on the Internet."@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10320320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A [[patent]] describing part of Google's ranking mechanism ([[PageRank]]) was granted on [[September 4]], [[2001]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10320330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The patent was officially assigned to Stanford University and lists Lawrence Page as the inventor.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10320340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Financing and initial public offering===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10320350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first funding for Google as a company was secured in 1998, in the form of a US$100,000 contribution from [[Andy Bechtolsheim]], co-founder of [[Sun Microsystems]], given to a corporation which did not yet exist.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10320360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Around six months later, a much larger round of funding was announced, with the major investors being rival venture capital firms [[Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers]] and [[Sequoia Capital]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10320370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's [[IPO]] took place on [[August 19]], [[2004]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10320380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@19,605,052 [[stock|shares]] were offered at a price of US$85 per share.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10320390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of that, 14,142,135 (another mathematical reference as [[square root of two|√2]] ≈ 1.4142135) were floated by Google, and the remaining 5,462,917 were offered by existing stockholders.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10320400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The sale of US$1.67 billion gave Google a [[market capitalization]] of more than US$23 billion.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10320410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vast majority of Google's 271 million shares remained under Google's control.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10320420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of Google's employees became instant [[paper millionaires]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10320430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Yahoo!]], a competitor of Google, also benefited from the IPO because it owned 8.4 million shares of Google as of [[August 9]], [[2004]], ten days before the IPO.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10320440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's stock performance after its first IPO launch has gone well, with shares hitting US$700 for the first time on [[October 31]], [[2007]], due to strong sales and earnings in the advertising market, as well as the release of new features such as the [[Google Desktop|desktop search function]] and its iGoogle personalized home page.@@@@1@54@@danf@17-8-2009
10320450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The surge in stock price is fueled primarily by individual investors, as opposed to large institutional investors and [[mutual fund]]s.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10320460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company is listed on the [[NASDAQ]] stock exchange under the [[ticker]] symbol '''GOOG''' and under the [[London Stock Exchange]] under the ticker symbol '''GGEA'''.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10320470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Growth===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10320480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the company's primary business interest is in the web content arena, Google has begun experimenting with other markets, such as [[radio]] and print publications.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10320490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[January 17]], [[2006]], Google announced that its purchase of a radio advertising company "dMarc", which provides an automated system that allows companies to advertise on the radio.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10320500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This will allow Google to combine two niche advertising media&mdash;the Internet and radio&mdash;with Google's ability to laser-focus on the tastes of consumers.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10320510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also begun an experiment in selling advertisements from its advertisers in offline newspapers and magazines, with select advertisements in the [[Chicago Sun-Times]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10320520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They have been filling unsold space in the newspaper that would have normally been used for in-house advertisements.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10320530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google was added to the [[S&P 500 index]] on [[March 30]], [[2006]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10320540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It replaced [[Burlington Resources]], a major oil producer based in [[Houston]] which was acquired by [[ConocoPhillips]].@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10320550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Acquisitions===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10320560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since 2001, Google has acquired several small start-up companies, often consisting of innovative teams and products.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10320570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the earlier companies that Google bought was [[Pyra Labs]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10320580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They were the creators of [[Blogger (service)|Blogger]], a weblog publishing platform, first launched in 1999.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10320590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This acquisition led to many premium features becoming free.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10320600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Pyra Labs was originally formed by [[Evan Williams (blogger)|Evan Williams]], yet he left Google in 2004.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10320610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In early 2006, Google acquired Upstartle, a company responsible for the online word processor, [[Writely]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10320620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The technology in this product was used by Google to eventually create [[Google Docs & Spreadsheets]].@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10320630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, Google acquired a company called [[Keyhole, Inc.]], which developed a product called ''Earth Viewer'' which was renamed in 2005 to [[Google Earth]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10320640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In February 2006, software company Adaptive Path sold Measure Map, a [[weblog]] statistics application, to Google.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10320650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Registration to the service has since been temporarily disabled.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10320660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The last update regarding the future of Measure Map was made on [[April 6]], [[2006]] and outlined many of the service's known issues.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10320670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In late 2006, Google bought online video site [[YouTube]] for US$1.65 billion in stock.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10320680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Shortly after, on [[October 31]], [[2006]], Google announced that it had also acquired [[JotSpot]], a developer of wiki technology for collaborative Web sites.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10320690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[April 13]], [[2007]], Google reached an agreement to acquire [[DoubleClick]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10320700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google agreed to buy the company for US$3.1 billion.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10320710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[July 9]], [[2007]], Google announced that it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire enterprise messaging security and compliance company [[Postini]].@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10320720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Partnerships===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10320730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, Google entered into partnerships with other companies and government agencies to improve production and services.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10320740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google announced a partnership with [[NASA Ames Research Center]] to build up of offices and work on research projects involving large-scale data management, [[nanotechnology]], [[distributed computing]], and the entrepreneurial space industry.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10320750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google also entered into a partnership with [[Sun Microsystems]] in October to help share and distribute each other's technologies.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10320760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company entered into a partnership with [[Time Warner]]'s [[AOL]], to enhance each other's video search services.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10320770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same year, the company became a major financial investor of the new [[.mobi]] [[top-level domain]] for mobile devices, in conjunction with several other companies, including [[Microsoft]], [[Nokia]], and [[Ericsson]] among others.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10320780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In September 2007, Google launched, "Adsense for Mobile", a service for its publishing partners which provides the ability to monetize their mobile websites through the targeted placement of mobile text ads, and acquired the mobile social networking site, ''Zingku.mobi'', to "provide people worldwide with direct access to Google applications, and ultimately the information they want and need, right from their mobile devices."@@@@1@62@@danf@17-8-2009
10320790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, Google and [[News Corporation|News Corp.]]'s Fox Interactive Media entered into a US$900 million agreement to provide search and advertising on the popular social networking site, [[MySpace]].@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10320800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On November 5, 2007 Google announced the [[Open Handset Alliance]] to develop an open platform for mobile services called [[Google Android|Android]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10320810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On March,2008 Google, [[Sprint]], [[Intel]], [[Comcast]], [[Time Warner Cable]],[[Bright House Networks]],[[Clearwire]] together found [[Xohm]] to provide wireless [[telecommunication]] service.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10320820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Products and services==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10320830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has created services and tools for the general public and business environment alike; including Web applications, advertising networks and solutions for businesses.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10320840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Advertising===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10320850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of Google's revenue is derived from advertising programs.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10320860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For the 2006 fiscal year, the company reported US$10.492 billion in total advertising revenues and only US$112 million in licensing and other revenues.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10320870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google [[AdWords]] allows Web advertisers to display advertisements in Google's search results and the Google Content Network, through either a cost-per-click or cost-per-view scheme.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10320880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google [[AdSense]] website owners can also display adverts on their own site, and earn money every time ads are clicked.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10320890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Web-based software===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10320900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Google search|Google web search engine]] is the company's most popular service.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10320910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of August 2007, Google is the most used [[search engine]] on the web with a 53.6% market share, ahead of [[Yahoo!]] (19.9%) and [[Live Search]] (12.9%).@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10320920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google indexes billions of Web pages, so that users can search for the information they desire, through the use of [[keyword (Internet search)|keywords]] and [[operators]].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10320930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also employed the Web Search technology into other search services, including Image Search, [[Google News]], the price comparison site [[Google Product Search]], the interactive [[Usenet]] archive [[Google Groups]], [[Google Maps]], and more.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10320940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, Google launched its own free web-based e-mail service, known as [[Gmail]] (or Google Mail in some jurisdictions).@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10320950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Gmail features [[e-mail filtering|spam-filtering technology]] and the capability to use Google technology to search e-mail.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10320960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The service generates revenue by displaying advertisements and links from the [[AdWords]] service that are tailored to the choice of the user and/or content of the e-mail messages displayed on screen.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10320970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In early 2006, the company launched [[Google Video]], which not only allows users to search and view freely available videos but also offers users and media publishers the ability to publish their content, including television shows on [[CBS]], [[NBA]] basketball games, and music videos.@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10320980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In August 2007, Google announced that it would shut down its video rental and sale program and offer refunds and [[Google Checkout]] credits to consumers who had purchased videos to own.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10320990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[February 28]], [[2008]] Google launched the [[Google Sites]] [[wiki]] as a [[Google Apps]] component.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10321000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also developed several desktop applications, including [[Google Earth]], an interactive mapping program powered by satellite and aerial imagery that covers the vast majority of the planet.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10321010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google Earth is generally considered to be remarkably accurate and extremely detailed.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10321020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many major cities have such detailed images that one can zoom in close enough to see vehicles and pedestrians clearly.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10321030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Consequently, there have been some concerns about national security implications.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10321040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Specifically, some countries and militaries contend the software can be used to pinpoint with near-precision accuracy the physical location of critical infrastructure, commercial and residential buildings, bases, government agencies, and so on.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10321050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the satellite images are not necessarily frequently updated, and all of them are available at no charge through other products and even government sources.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10321060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, [[NASA]] and the [[NGA|National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10321070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some counter this argument by stating that Google Earth makes it easier to access and research the images.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10321080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many other products are available through [[Google Labs]], which is a collection of incomplete applications that are still being tested for use by the general public.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10321090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has promoted their products in various ways.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10321100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[London]], ''Google Space'' was set-up in [[Heathrow Airport]], showcasing several products, including Gmail, Google Earth and Picasa.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10321110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, a similar page was launched for American college students, under the name ''College Life, Powered by Google.''@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10321120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007, some reports surfaced that Google was planning the release of its own mobile phone, possibly a competitor to [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s [[iPhone]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10321130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The project, called [[Android (mobile phone platform)|Android]] provides a standard development kit that will allow any "Android" phone to run software developed for the Android SDK, no matter the phone manufacturer.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10321140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In October 2007, Google SMS service was launched in [[India]] allowing users to get business listings, movie showtimes, and information by sending an [[SMS]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10321150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Enterprise products===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10321160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007, Google launched [[Google Apps|Google Apps Premier Edition]], a version of Google Apps targeted primarily at the business user.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10321170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It includes such extras as more disk space for e-mail, API access, and premium support, for a price of US$50 per user per year.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10321180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A large implementation of Google Apps with 38,000 users is at [[Lakehead University]] in [[Thunder Bay, Ontario|Thunder Bay]], Ontario, Canada.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10321190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Platform==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10321200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google runs its services on several [[server farm]]s, each comprising thousands of low-cost commodity computers running stripped-down versions of [[Linux]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10321210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the company divulges no details of its hardware, a 2006 estimate cites 450,000 servers, "racked up in clusters at data centers around the world."@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10321220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Corporate affairs and culture==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10321230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google is known for its relaxed corporate culture, of which its playful variations on [[Google logo#History of the Google Doodle|its own corporate logo]] are an indicator.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10321240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007 and 2008, ''[[Fortune Magazine]]'' placed Google at the top of its list of the hundred best places to work.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10321250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's corporate philosophy embodies such casual principles as "you can make money without doing evil," "you can be serious without a suit," and "work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun."@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10321260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has been criticized for having salaries below industry standards.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10321270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, some [[system administrator]]s earn no more than US$35,000 per year – considered to be quite low for the [[San Francisco Bay Area|Bay Area]] job market.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10321280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, Google's stock performance following its [[Initial public offering|IPO]] has enabled many early employees to be competitively compensated by participation in the corporation's remarkable equity growth.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10321290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google implemented other employee incentives in 2005, such as the [[Google Founders' Award]], in addition to offering higher salaries to new employees.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10321300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's workplace amenities, culture, global popularity, and strong brand recognition have also attracted potential applicants.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10321310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the company's [[IPO]] in August 2004, it was reported that founders [[Sergey Brin]] and [[Larry Page]], and CEO [[Eric E. Schmidt|Eric Schmidt]], requested that their base salary be cut to US$1.00.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10321320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Subsequent offers by the company to increase their salaries have been turned down, primarily because, "their primary compensation continues to come from returns on their ownership stakes in Google.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10321330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As significant stockholders, their personal wealth is tied directly to sustained stock price appreciation and performance, which provides direct alignment with stockholder interests."@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10321340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Prior to 2004, Schmidt was making US$250,000 per year, and Page and Brin each earned a salary of US$150,000.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10321350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They have all declined recent offers of bonuses and increases in compensation by Google's board of directors.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10321360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a 2007 report of the United States' richest people, [[Forbes]] reported that [[Sergey Brin]] and [[Larry Page]] were tied for #5 with a net worth of US$18.5 billion each.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10321370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007 and through early 2008, Google has seen the departure of several top executives.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10321380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Justin Rosenstein, Google’s product manager, left in June of 2007.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10321390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Shortly thereafter, Gideon Yu, former chief financial officer of [[YouTube]], a Google unit, joined [[Facebook]] along with Benjamin Ling, a high-ranking engineer, who left in October 2007.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10321400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In March 2008, two senior Google leaders announced their desire to pursue other opportunities.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10321410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sheryl Sandburg, ex-VP of global online sales and operations began her position as COO of [[Facebook]] while Ash ElDifrawi, former head of brand advertising, left to become CMO of [[Netshops]] Inc.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10321420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Googleplex===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10321430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's headquarters in Mountain View, California, is referred to as "the [[Googleplex]]" in a play of words; a [[googolplex]] being 1 followed by a googol of zeros, and the HQ being a [[complex]] of buildings (cf. [[movie theater|multiplex]], cineplex, etc).@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10321440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The lobby is decorated with a [[piano]], [[lava lamps]], old server clusters, and a projection of search queries on the wall.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10321450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The hallways are full of exercise balls and [[bicycle]]s.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10321460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each employee has access to the corporate recreation center.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10321470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recreational amenities are scattered throughout the campus and include a workout room with weights and rowing machines, locker rooms, washers and dryers, a massage room, assorted [[video game]]s, [[Foosball]], a [[piano|baby grand piano]], a pool table, and [[ping pong]].@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10321480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to the [[Recreation room|rec room]], there are snack rooms stocked with various foods and drinks.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10321490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, Google moved into of office space in [[New York City]], at 111 [[Eighth Avenue|Eighth Ave.]] in Manhattan.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10321500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The office was specially designed and built for Google and houses its largest advertising sales team, which has been instrumental in securing large partnerships, most recently deals with [[MySpace]] and [[AOL]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10321510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2003, they added an engineering staff in New York City, which has been responsible for more than 100 engineering projects, including [[Google Maps]], [[Google Spreadsheet]]s, and others.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10321520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is estimated that the building costs Google US$10 million per year to rent and is similar in design and functionality to its [[Mountain View, California|Mountain View]] headquarters, including [[foosball]], [[air hockey]], and ping-pong tables, as well as a video game area.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10321530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In November 2006, Google opened offices on [[Carnegie Mellon]]'s campus in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10321540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By late 2006, Google also established a new headquarters for its AdWords division in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10321550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The size of Google's search system is presently undisclosed.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10321560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The best estimates place the total number of the company's servers at 450,000, spread over twenty five locations throughout the world, including major [[network operations center|operations centers]] in [[Dublin]] (European Operations [[Headquarters]]) and [[Atlanta, Georgia]].@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10321570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google is also in the process of constructing a major operations center in [[The Dalles, Oregon]], on the banks of the [[Columbia River]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10321580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The site, also referred to by the media as ''Project 02'', was chosen due to the availability of inexpensive [[hydroelectric power]] and a large surplus of [[fiber optic]] cable, remnants of the dot com boom of the late 1990s.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10321590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The computing center is estimated to be the size of two [[American football|football fields]], and it has created hundreds of construction jobs, causing local real estate prices to increase 40%.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10321600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Upon completion, the center is expected to create 60 to 200 permanent jobs in the town of 12,000 people.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10321610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google is taking steps to ensure that their operations are environmentally sound.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10321620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In October 2006, the company announced plans to install thousands of [[Photovoltaic module|solar panels]] to provide up to 1.6&nbsp;[[megawatt]]s of [[electricity]], enough to satisfy approximately 30% of the campus' energy needs.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10321630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The system will be the largest solar power system constructed on a [[United States|U.S.]] corporate campus and one of the largest on any corporate site in the world.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10321640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In June 2007, Google announced that they plan to become [[carbon neutral]] by 2008, which includes investing in energy efficiency, renewable energy sources, and purchasing carbon offsets, such as investing in projects like capturing and burning [[methane]] from animal waste at Mexican and Brazilian farms.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10321650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Innovation time off===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10321660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As an interesting motivation technique (usually called [[ITO|Innovation Time Off]]), all Google engineers are encouraged to spend 20% of their work time (one day per week) on projects that interest them.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10321670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of Google's newer services, such as [[Gmail]], [[Google News]], [[Orkut]], and [[AdSense]] originated from these independent endeavors.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10321680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a talk at [[Stanford University]], [[Marissa Mayer]], Google's Vice President of Search Products and User Experience, stated that her analysis showed that half of the new product launches originated from the 20% time.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10321690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Easter eggs and April Fool's Day jokes===@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10321700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has a tradition of creating [[April Fool's Day]] jokes&mdash;such as [[Google's hoaxes#2000|Google MentalPlex]], which allegedly featured the use of mental power to search the web.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10321710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2002, they claimed that [[pigeons]] were the [[Google's hoaxes#2002: Pigeon Rank|secret]] behind their growing [[search engine]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10321720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, they featured [[Google's hoaxes#2004: Google Lunar/Copernicus Center|Google Lunar]] (which claimed to feature jobs on the [[moon]]), and in 2005, a [[fiction|fictitious]] brain-boosting drink, termed [[Google's hoaxes#2005: Google Gulp|Google Gulp]] was announced.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10321730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, they came up with [[Google's hoaxes#2006: Google Romance|Google Romance]], a hypothetical [[online dating]] service.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10321740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007, Google announced two joke products.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10321750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first was a free wireless Internet service called [[TiSP]] (Toilet Internet Service Provider) in which one obtained a connection by flushing one end of a [[fiber-optic]] cable down their toilet and waiting only an hour for a "Plumbing Hardware Dispatcher (PHD)" to connect it to the Internet.@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10321760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, Google's [[Gmail]] page displayed an announcement for [[Gmail Paper]], which allows users of their free email service to have email messages printed and shipped to a snail mail address.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10321770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's services contain a number of [[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter eggs]]; for instance, the Language Tools page offers the search interface in the [[Swedish Chef]]'s "Bork bork bork," [[Pig Latin]], ”Hacker” (actually [[leetspeak]]), [[Elmer Fudd]], and [[Klingon language|Klingon]].@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10321780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, the search engine calculator provides the [[Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything]] from [[Douglas Adams]]' ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10321790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As Google's search box can be used as a unit converter (as well as a calculator), some non-standard units are built in, such as the [[Smoot]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10321800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google also routinely modifies its logo in accordance with various holidays or special events throughout the year, such as [[Christmas]], [[Mother's Day]], or the [[birthday]]s of various notable individuals.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10321810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===IPO and culture===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10321820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many people speculated that Google's [[initial public offering|IPO]] would inevitably lead to changes in the company's culture, because of shareholder pressure for employee benefit reductions and short-term advances, or because a large number of the company's employees would suddenly become millionaires on paper.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10321830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a report given to potential investors, co-founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page promised that the IPO would not change the company's culture.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10321840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Later Mr. Page said, "We think a lot about how to maintain our culture and the fun elements.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10321850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We spent a lot of time getting our offices right.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10321860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We think it's important to have a high density of people.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10321870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@People are packed together everywhere.@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10321880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We all share offices.@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10321890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We like this set of buildings because it's more like a densely packed university campus than a typical suburban office park."@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10321900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, many analysts are finding that as Google grows, the company is becoming more "corporate".@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10321910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, articles in ''[[The New York Times]]'' and other sources began suggesting that Google had lost its anti-corporate, no evil philosophy.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10321920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In an effort to maintain the company's unique culture, Google has designated a Chief Culture Officer in 2006, who also serves as the Director of Human Resources.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10321930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The purpose of the Chief Culture Officer is to develop and maintain the culture and work on ways to keep true to the core values that the company was founded on in the beginning—a flat organization, a lack of hierarchy, a collaborative environment.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10321940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Philanthropy===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10321950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, Google formed a for-profit philanthropic wing, [[Google.org]], with a start-up fund of US$1 billion.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10321960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The express mission of the organization is to create awareness about [[climate change]], global public health, and [[global poverty]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10321970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of its first projects is to develop a viable [[plug-in hybrid]] [[electric vehicle]] that can attain 100 [[fuel economy in automobiles|mpg]].@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10321980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The founding and current director is Dr. [[Larry Brilliant]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10321990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Criticism==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10322000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As it has grown, Google has found itself the focus of several controversies related to its business practices and services.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10322010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, [[Google Book Search]]'s effort to digitize millions of books and make the full text searchable has led to [[copyright]] disputes with the [[Authors Guild]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10322020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's cooperation with the governments of [[People's Republic of China|China]], and to a lesser extent [[France]] and [[Germany]] (regarding [[Holocaust denial]]) to filter search results in accordance to regional laws and regulations has led to claims of [[censorship by Google|censorship]].@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10322030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's persistent [[HTTP cookie|cookie]] and other information collection practices have led to concerns over user [[Google and privacy issues|privacy]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10322040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of [[December 11]], [[2007]], Google, like the [[Microsoft]] search engine, stores "personal information for 18 months" and by comparison, [[Yahoo!]] and [[AOL]] ([[Time Warner]]) "retain search requests for 13 months."@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10322050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of [[India]]n state governments have raised concerns about the security risks posed by geographic details provided by [[Google Earth]]'s satellite imaging.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10322060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also been criticized by advertisers regarding its inability to combat [[click fraud]], when a person or automated script is used to generate a charge on an advertisement without really having an interest in the product.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10322070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Industry reports in 2006 claim that approximately 14 to 20 percent of clicks were in fact fraudulent or invalid.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10322080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Further, Google has faced allegations of [[sexism]] and [[ageism]] from former employees.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10322090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also faced accusations in [[Harper's Magazine]] of being extremely excessive with their energy usage, and were accused of employing their "[[Don't be evil]]" motto as well as their very public energy saving campaigns as means of trying to cover up or make up for the massive amounts of energy their servers actually require.@@@@1@55@@danf@17-8-2009
10322100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, US District Court Judge [[Louis Stanton]], on [[July 1]], 2008 ordered Google to give [[YouTube]] user data / log to [[Viacom]] to support its case in a billion-dollar [[copyright]] lawsuit against Google.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10322110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google and [[Viacom]], however, on [[July 14]], 2008, agreed in [[compromise]] to protect [[YouTube]] users' personal data in the $ 1 billion (£ 497 million) copyright lawsuit.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10322120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google agreed it will make user information and internet protocol addresses from its YouTube subsidiary anonymous before handing over the data to Viacom.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10322130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The privacy deal also applied to other litigants including the [[FA Premier League]], the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organisation and the [[Scottish Premier League]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10322140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The deal however did not extend the anonymity to employees, since Viacom would prove that Google staff are aware of uploading of illegal material to the site.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10322150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The parties therefore will further meet on the matter lest the data be made available to the court.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10330010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Google Translate</article>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10330020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Google Translate''' is a service provided by [[Google|Google Inc.]] to translate a section of text, or a webpage, into another language, with limits to the number of paragraphs, or range of technical terms, translated.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10330030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For some languages, users are asked for alternate translations, such as for technical terms, to be included for future updates to the translation process.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10330040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike other translation services such as [[Babel Fish (website)|Babel Fish]], [[AOL]], and [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]] which use [[SYSTRAN]], Google uses its own translation software.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10330050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Functions ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The service also includes translation of an entire Web page.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10330070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The translation is limited in number of paragraphs per webpage (such as indicated by break-tags <code>&lt;br&gt;</code>); however, if text on a webpage is separated by horizontal blank-line images (auto-wrapped without using any <code>&lt;br&gt;</code>), a long webpage can be translated containing several thousand words.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10330080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google Translate, like other automatic translation tools, has its limitations.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10330090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While it can help the reader to understand the general content of a foreign language text, it does not deliver accurate translations and does not produce publication-standard content, for example it often translates words out of context and is deliberately not applying any [[Grammar|grammatical]] rules.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10330100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Approach ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google translate is based on an approach called [[statistical machine translation]], and more specifically, on research by [[Franz-Josef Och]] who won the [[DARPA]] contest for speed machine translation in 2003.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10330120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Och is now the head of Google's machine translation department.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10330130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to Och, a solid base for developing a usable statistical machine translation system for a new pair of languages from scratch, would consist in having a bilingual [[text corpus]] (or [[parallel text|parallel collection]]) of more than a million words and two monolingual corpora of each more than a billion words.@@@@1@51@@danf@17-8-2009
10330140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Statistical [[Mathematical model|models]] from this data are then used to translate between those languages.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10330150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To acquire this huge amount of linguistic data, Google used [[United Nations]] documents.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10330160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same document is normally available in all six official UN languages, thus Google now has a hectalingual corpus of 20 billion words' worth of human translations.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10330170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The availability of Arabic and Chinese as official UN languages is probably one of the reasons why Google Translate initially focused on the development of translation between English and those languages, and not, for example, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[German language|German]], which are not official languages at the UN.@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10330180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google representatives have been very active at domestic conferences in Japan in the field asking researchers to provide them with bilingual corpora.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10330190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Options ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(by chronological order)@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Beginning@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Arabic@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to French@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to German@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Spanish@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**French to English@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**German to English@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Spanish to English@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Arabic to English@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*2nd stage@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10330310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Portuguese@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Portuguese to English@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*3rd stage@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10330340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Italian@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Italian to English@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10330360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*4th stage@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10330370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Chinese (Simplified) BETA@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10330380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Japanese BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Korean BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Chinese (Simplified) to English BETA@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10330410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Japanese to English BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Korean to English BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*5th stage@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10330440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Russian BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Russian to English BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*6th stage@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10330470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Arabic BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Arabic to English BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*7th stage (launched February, 2007)@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10330500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Chinese (Traditional) BETA@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10330510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Chinese (Traditional) to English BETA@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10330520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Chinese (Simplified to Traditional) BETA@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10330530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Chinese (Traditional to Simplified) BETA@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10330540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*8th stage (launched October, 2007)@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10330550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** all 25 language pairs use Google's machine translation system@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10330560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*9th stage@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10330570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**English to Hindi BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Hindi to English BETA@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10330590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*10th stage (as of this stage, translation can be done between any two languages)@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10330600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Bulgarian@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Croatian@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Czech@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Danish@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Dutch@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Finnish@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Greek@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Norwegian@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Polish@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Romanian@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10330700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Swedish@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10340010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Grammar</article>@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10340020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Grammar''' is the field of [[linguistics]] that covers the [[rules]] governing the use of any given [[natural language|natural language]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10340030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It includes [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[syntax]], often complemented by [[phonetics]], [[phonology]], [[semantics]], and [[pragmatics]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10340040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each language has its own distinct grammar.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10340050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"English grammar" is the rules of the English language itself.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10340060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"''An'' English grammar" is a specific study or analysis of these rules.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10340070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A [[reference book]] describing the grammar of a language is called a "reference grammar" or simply "a grammar".@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10340080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A fully explicit grammar exhaustively describing the [[grammaticality|grammatical]] constructions of a language is called a descriptive grammar, as opposed to [[linguistic prescription]] which tries to enforce the governing rules how a language is to be used.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10340090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Grammatical framework]]s are approaches to constructing grammars.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10340100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The standard framework of [[generative grammar]] is the [[transformational grammar]] model developed by [[Noam Chomsky]] and his followers from the 1950s to 1980s.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10340110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Etymology==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10340120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word "grammar," derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''γραμματική τέχνη'' (''grammatike techne''), which means "art of letters," from ''γράμμα'' (''gramma''), "letter," and that from ''γράφειν'' (''graphein''), "to draw, to write".@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10340130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10340140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first systematic grammars originate in [[Iron Age India]], with [[Panini (grammarian)|Panini]] (4th c. BC) and his commentators [[Pingala]] (ca. 200 BC), [[Katyayana]], and [[Patanjali]] (2nd c. BC).@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10340150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the West, grammar emerges as a discipline in [[Hellenism]] from the 3rd c. BC forward with authors like [[Rhyanus]] and [[Aristarchus of Samothrace]], the oldest extant work being the ''[[Art of Grammar]]'' ({{lang|grc|Τέχνη Γραμματική}}), attributed to [[Dionysius Thrax]] (ca. 100 BC).@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10340160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Latin grammar]] developed by following Greek models from the 1st century BC, due to the work of authors such as [[Orbilius Pupillus]], [[Remmius Palaemon]], [[Marcus Valerius Probus]], [[Verrius Flaccus]], [[Aemilius Asper]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10340170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tamil grammatical tradition also began around the 1st century BC with the [[Tolkāppiyam]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10340180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A grammar of [[Old Irish|Irish]] originated in the 7th century with the [[Auraicept na n-Éces]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10340190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Arabic grammar]] emerges from the 8th century with the work of [[Ibn Abi Ishaq]] and his students.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10340200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first treatises on [[Hebrew grammar]] appear in the [[High Middle Ages]], in the context of [[Mishnah]] (exegesis of the [[Hebrew Bible]]).@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10340210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Karaite]] tradition originates in [[Abbasid]] [[Baghdad]].@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10340220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ''[[Diqduq]]'' (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10340230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Ibn Barun]] in the 12th century compares the Hebrew language with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the [[Islamic grammatical tradition]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10340240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Belonging to the ''trivium'' of the seven [[liberal arts]], grammar was taught as a core discipline throughout the [[Middle Ages]], following the influence of authors from [[Late Antiquity]], such as [[Priscian]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10340250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Treatment of vernaculars begins gradually during the [[High Middle Ages]], with isolated works such as the [[First Grammatical Treatise]], but becomes influential only in the [[Renaissance]] and [[Baroque]] periods.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10340260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[1486]], [[Antonio de Nebrija]] published ''Las introduciones Latinas contrapuesto el romance al Latin'', and the first [[Spanish grammar]], ''Gramática de la lengua castellana'', in 1492.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10340270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During the 16th century [[Italian Renaissance]], the ''Questione della lingua'' was the discussion on the status and ideal form of the [[Italian language]], initiated by [[Dante]]'s ''[[de vulgari eloquentia]]'' ([[Pietro Bembo]], ''Prose della volgar lingua'' Venice 1525).@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10340280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Grammars of non-European languages began to be compiled for the purposes of [[evangelization]] and [[Bible translation]] from the 16th century onward, such as ''Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de los Indios de los Reynos del Perú'' (1560), and a [[Quechua]] grammar by [[Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás]].@@@@1@49@@danf@17-8-2009
10340290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1643 there appeared [[Ivan Uzhevych]]'s ''Grammatica sclavonica'' and, in 1762, the ''Short Introduction to English Grammar'' of [[Robert Lowth]] was also published.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10340300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ''Grammatisch-Kritisches Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart'', a [[High German]] grammar in five volumes by [[Johann Christoph Adelung]], appeared as early as 1774.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10340310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern [[linguistics]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10340320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Serbian grammar by [[Vuk Stefanović Karadžić]] arrived in 1814, while the ''Deutsche Grammatik'' of the [[Brothers Grimm]] was first published in 1818.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10340330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ''Comparative Grammar'' of [[Franz Bopp]], the starting point of modern [[comparative linguistics]], came out in 1833.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10340340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the [[USA]], the Society for the Promotion of Good Grammar has designated March 4, 2008 as National Grammar Day.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10340350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Development of grammars==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10340360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Grammars evolve through usage, and grammars also develop due to separations of the human population.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10340370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the advent of written [[Knowledge representation|representation]]s, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10340380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Formal grammars are [[codification (linguistics)|codifications]] of usage that are developed by repeated documentation over time, and by [[observation]] as well.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10340390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As the rules become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10340400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This often creates a discrepancy between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted over time as being correct.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10340410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists tend to believe that prescriptive grammars do not have any justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes; however, prescriptions are considered in [[sociolinguistics]] as part of the explanation for why some people say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the other depending on social context.@@@@1@54@@danf@17-8-2009
10340420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The formal study of grammar is an important part of [[education]] for children from a young age through advanced [[learning]], though the rules taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the sense most [[linguistics|linguists]] use the term, as they are often [[prescriptive]] rather than [[descriptive]].@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10340430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Constructed language]]s (also called planned languages or conlangs) are more common in the modern day.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10340440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many have been designed to aid human [[communication]] (for example, naturalistic [[Interlingua]], schematic [[Esperanto]], and the highly logic-compatible artificial language [[Lojban]]).@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10340450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each of these languages has its own grammar.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10340460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@No clear line can be drawn between syntax and morphology.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10340470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Analytic languages]] use [[syntax]] to convey information that is encoded via [[inflection]] in [[synthetic language]]s.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10340480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words, word order is not significant and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10340490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], for example, are highly analytic, and meaning is therefore very context – dependent.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10340500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Both do have some inflections, and have had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more "purely" analytic over time.)@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10340510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Latin]], which is highly [[synthetic language|synthetic]], uses [[affix]]es and [[inflection]]s to convey the same information that Chinese does with [[syntax]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10340520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because Latin words are quite (though not completely) self-contained, an intelligible Latin [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] can be made from elements that are placed in a largely arbitrary order.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10340530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Latin has a complex affixation and a simple syntax, while Chinese has the opposite.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10340540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Grammar frameworks==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10340550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various "grammar frameworks" have been developed in [[theoretical linguistics]] since the mid 20th century, in particular under the influence of the idea of a "[[Universal grammar]]" in the USA.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10340560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of these, the main divisions are:@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10340570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Transformational grammar]] (TG))@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10340580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Principles and Parameters|Principles and Parameters Theory]] (P&P)@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10340590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Lexical functional grammar|Lexical-functional Grammar]] (LFG)@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10340600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Generalised Phrase Structure Grammar|Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar]] (GPSG)@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10340610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar]] (HPSG)@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10340620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Dependency grammar]]s (DG)@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10340630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Role and reference grammar]] (RRG)@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10350010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>Hidden Markov model</article>@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10350020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A '''hidden Markov model''' ('''HMM''') is a [[statistical model]] in which the system being modeled is assumed to be a [[Markov process]] with unknown parameters, and the challenge is to determine the hidden parameters from the [[observable]] parameters.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10350030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The extracted model parameters can then be used to perform further analysis, for example for [[pattern recognition]] applications.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10350040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An HMM can be considered as the simplest [[dynamic Bayesian network]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10350050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a regular [[Markov model]], the state is directly visible to the observer, and therefore the state transition probabilities are the only parameters.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10350060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a ''hidden'' Markov model, the state is not directly visible, but variables influenced by the state are visible.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10350070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each state has a probability distribution over the possible output tokens.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10350080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore the sequence of tokens generated by an HMM gives some information about the sequence of states.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10350090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hidden Markov models are especially known for their application in [[time| temporal]] pattern recognition such as [[speech recognition|speech]], [[handwriting recognition|handwriting]], [[gesture recognition]], [[musical score]] following, [[partial discharge]]s and [[bioinformatics]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10350100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Architecture of a hidden Markov model ==@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10350110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The diagram below shows the general architecture of an instantiated HMM.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10350120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each oval shape represents a random variable that can adopt a number of values.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10350130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The random variable <math>x(t)</math> is the hidden state at time <math>t</math> (with the model from the above diagram, <math>x(t) \\in \\{x_1, x_2, x_3\\}</math>).@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10350140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The random variable <math>y(t)</math> is the observation at time <math>t</math> (<math>y(t) \\in \\{y_1, y_2, y_3, y_4\\}</math>).@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10350150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The arrows in the diagram (often called a [[Trellis (graph)|trellis diagram]]) denote conditional dependencies.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10350160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From the diagram, it is clear that the value of the hidden variable <math>x(t)</math> (at time <math>t</math>) ''only'' depends on the value of the hidden variable <math>x(t-1)</math> : the values at time <math>t-2</math> and before have no influence.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10350170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is called the [[Markov property]].@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10350180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, the value of the observed variable <math>y(t)</math> only depends on the value of the hidden variable <math>x(t)</math> (both at time <math>t</math>).@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10350190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Probability of an observed sequence==@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10350200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The probability of observing a sequence <math>Y=y(0), y(1),\\dots,y(L-1)</math> of length <math>L</math> is given by@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10350210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:<math>P(Y)=\\sum_{X}P(Y\\mid X)P(X),</math>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10350220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@where the sum runs over all possible hidden node sequences <math>X=x(0), x(1), \\dots, x(L-1)</math>.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10350230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Brute force calculation of <math>P(Y)</math> is intractable for most real-life problems, as the number of possible hidden node sequences is typically extremely high.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10350240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The calculation can however be sped up enormously using the [[Viterbi algorithm|forward algorithm]] or the equivalent backward algorithm.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10350250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Using hidden Markov models==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10350260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are three [[canonical]] problems associated with HMM:@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10350270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Given the parameters of the model, compute the probability of a particular output sequence, and the probabilities of the hidden state values given that output sequence.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10350280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem is solved by the [[forward-backward algorithm]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10350290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Given the parameters of the model, find the most likely sequence of hidden states that could have generated a given output sequence.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10350300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem is solved by the [[Viterbi algorithm]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10350310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Given an output sequence or a set of such sequences, find the most likely set of state transition and output probabilities.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10350320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words, discover the parameters of the HMM given a dataset of sequences.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10350330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem is solved by the [[Baum-Welch algorithm]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10350340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== A concrete example ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10350350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@''This example is further elaborated in the [[Viterbi algorithm]] page.''@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10350360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Applications of hidden Markov models===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10350370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Cryptanalysis]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10350380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Speech recognition]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10350390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Machine translation]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10350400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Partial discharge]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10350410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== History ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10350420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hidden Markov Models were first described in a series of statistical papers by [[Leonard E. Baum]] and other authors in the second half of the 1960s.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10350430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the first applications of HMMs was [[speech recognition]], starting in the mid-1970s.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10350440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the second half of the 1980s, HMMs began to be applied to the analysis of biological sequences, in particular [[DNA]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10350450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since then, they have become ubiquitous in the field of [[bioinformatics]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10360010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>HTML</article>@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10360020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''HTML''', an [[Acronym and initialism|initialism]] of '''HyperText Markup Language''', is the predominant [[markup language]] for [[web page]]s.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10360030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It provides a means to describe the structure of text-based information in a document — by denoting certain text as links, headings, paragraphs, lists, and so on — and to supplement that text with ''interactive forms'', embedded ''images'', and other objects.@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10360040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML is written in the form of tags, surrounded by [[Brackets#Angle brackets or chevrons .3C .3E|angle brackets]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10360050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML can also describe, to some degree, the appearance and [[semantics]] of a document, and can include embedded [[scripting language]] code (such as JavaScript) which can affect the behavior of [[Web browser]]s and other HTML processors.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10360060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML is also often used to refer to content in specific languages, such as a [[MIME type]] text/html, or even more broadly as a generic term for HTML, whether in its [[XML]]-descended form (such as [[XHTML]] 1.0 and later) or its form descended directly from [[SGML]] (such as HTML 4.01 and earlier).@@@@1@52@@danf@17-8-2009
10360070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By convention, HTML format data files use a file extension .html or .htm.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10360080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History of HTML==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10360090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Origins===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10360100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1980, physicist [[Tim Berners-Lee]], who was an independent contractor at [[CERN]], proposed and prototyped [[ENQUIRE]], a system for CERN researchers to use and share documents.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10360110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1989, Berners-Lee and CERN data systems engineer [[Robert Cailliau]] each submitted separate proposals for an [[Internet]]-based [[hypertext]] system providing similar functionality.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10360120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The following year, they collaborated on a joint proposal, the WorldWideWeb (W3) project, which was accepted by CERN.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10360130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===First specifications===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10360140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called ''HTML Tags'', first mentioned on the Internet by Berners-Lee in late 1991.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10360150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It describes 22 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10360160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thirteen of these elements still exist in HTML 4.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10360170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Berners-Lee considered HTML to be, at the time, an application of [[SGML]], but it was not formally defined as such until the mid-1993 publication, by the [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]], of the first proposal for an HTML specification: Berners-Lee and [[Dan Connolly]]'s "Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)" Internet-Draft, which included an SGML [[Document Type Definition]] to define the grammar.@@@@1@58@@danf@17-8-2009
10360180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The draft expired after six months, but was notable for its acknowledgment of the [[Mosaic (web browser)|NCSA Mosaic]] browser's custom tag for embedding in-line images, reflecting the IETF's philosophy of basing standards on successful prototypes.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10360190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, Dave Raggett's competing Internet-Draft, "HTML+ (Hypertext Markup Format)", from late 1993, suggested standardizing already-implemented features like tables and fill-out forms.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10360200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the HTML and HTML+ drafts expired in early 1994, the IETF created an HTML Working Group, which in 1995 completed "HTML 2.0", the first HTML specification intended to be treated as a standard against which future implementations should be based.@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10360210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Published as [[Request for Comments]] 1996, HTML 2.0 included ideas from the HTML and HTML+ drafts.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10360220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There was no "HTML 1.0"; the 2.0 designation was intended to distinguish the new edition from previous drafts.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10360230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Further development under the auspices of the IETF was stalled by competing interests.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10360240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since 1996, the HTML specifications have been maintained, with input from commercial software vendors, by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C).@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10360250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, in 2000, HTML also became an international standard ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]/[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] 15445:2000).@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10360260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The last HTML specification published by the W3C is the HTML 4.01 Recommendation, published in late 1999.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10360270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its issues and errors were last acknowledged by errata published in 2001.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10360280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Version history of the standard===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10360290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====HTML versions====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10360300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''July, 1993:''' [http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/draft-ietf-iiir-html-01.txt Hypertext Markup Language], was published at [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] working draft (that is, not yet a standard).@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10360310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''November, 1995:''' [http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1866 HTML 2.0] published as IETF [[Request for Comments]]:@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10360320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* RFC 1866,@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10360330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* supplemented by RFC 1867 (form-based file upload) that same month,@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10360340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* RFC 1942 (tables) in ''May 1996'',@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10360350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* RFC 1980 (client-side image maps) in ''August 1996'', and@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10360360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* RFC 2070 ([[internationalization and localization|internationalization]]) in ''January 1997'';@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10360370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ultimately, all were declared obsolete/historic by RFC 2854 in ''June 2000''.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10360380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''April 1995''': [http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/html3/ HTML 3.0], proposed as a standard to the IETF.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10360390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It included many of the capabilities that were in Raggett's HTML+ proposal, such as support for tables, text flow around figures, and the display of complex mathematical formulas.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10360400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A demonstration appeared in W3C's own [[Arena (web browser)|Arena browser]].@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10360410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML 3.0 did not succeed for several reasons.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10360420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The pace of browser development, as well as the number of interested parties, had outstripped the resources of the IETF.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10360430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Netscape continued to introduce HTML elements that specified the visual appearance of documents, contrary to the goals of the newly-formed W3C, which sought to limit HTML to describing logical structure.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10360440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft, a newcomer at the time, played to all sides by creating its own tags, implementing Netscape's elements for compatibility, and supporting W3C features such as Cascading Style Sheets.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10360450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''[[January 14]], [[1997]]:''' [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html32 HTML 3.2], published as a [[W3C Recommendation]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10360460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was the first version developed and standardized exclusively by the W3C, as the IETF had closed its HTML Working Group in September 1997.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10360470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The new version dropped math formulas entirely, reconciled overlap among various proprietary extensions, and adopted most of Netscape's visual markup tags.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10360480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Netscape's [[blink element]] and Microsoft's [[marquee element]] were omitted due to a mutual agreement between the two companies.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10360490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ability to include mathematical formulas in HTML would not be standardized until years later in [[MathML]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10360500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''[[December 18]], [[1997]]:''' [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40-971218/ HTML 4.0], published as a W3C Recommendation.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10360510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It offers three "flavors":@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10360520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Strict, in which deprecated elements are forbidden,@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10360530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Transitional, in which deprecated elements are allowed,@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10360540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Frameset, in which mostly only [[Framing (World Wide Web)|frame]] related elements are allowed;@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10360550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML 4.0 (initially code-named "Cougar") likewise adopted many browser-specific element types and attributes, but at the same time sought to phase out Netscape's visual markup features by marking them as [[deprecation|deprecated]] in favor of style sheets.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10360560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Minor editorial revisions to the HTML 4.0 specification were published in 1998 without incrementing the version number and further minor revisions as HTML 4.01.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10360570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''[[April 24]], [[1998]]:''' [http://www.w3.org/TR/1998/REC-html40-19980424/ HTML 4.0] was reissued with minor edits without incrementing the version number.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10360580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''[[December 24]], [[1999]]:''' [http://www.w3.org/TR/html401 HTML 4.01], published as a W3C Recommendation.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10360590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It offers the same three flavors as HTML 4.0, and its last [http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/html4-updates/errata errata] were published [[May 12]], [[2001]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10360600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML 4.01 and ISO/IEC 15445:2000 are the most recent and final versions of HTML.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10360610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''[[May 15]], [[2000]]:''' [https://www.cs.tcd.ie/15445/15445.HTML ISO/IEC 15445:2000] ("[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] HTML", based on HTML 4.01 Strict), published as an ISO/IEC international standard.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10360620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''[[January 22]], [[2008]]:''' [http://www.w3.org/TR/html5/ HTML 5], published as a Working Draft by W3C.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10360630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====XHTML versions====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10360640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML is a separate language that began as a reformulation of HTML 4.01 using XML 1.0.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10360650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It continues to be developed:@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10360660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/ XHTML 1.0], published [[January 26]], [[2000]] as a W3C Recommendation, later revised and republished [[August 1]], [[2002]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10360670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It offers the same three flavors as HTML 4.0 and 4.01, reformulated in XML, with minor restrictions.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10360680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/ XHTML 1.1], published [[May 31]], [[2001]] as a W3C Recommendation.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10360690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is based on XHTML 1.0 Strict, but includes minor changes, can be customized, and is reformulated using modules from [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml-modularization Modularization of XHTML], which was published [[April 10]], [[2001]] as a W3C Recommendation.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10360700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml2/ XHTML 2.0] is still a W3C Working Draft.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10360710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML 2.0 is incompatible with XHTML 1.x and, therefore, would be more accurate to characterize as an XHTML-inspired new language than an update to XHTML 1.x.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10360720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* XHTML 5, which is an update to XHTML 1.x, is being defined alongside [[HTML 5]] in the [http://www.w3.org/html/wg/html5/ HTML 5 draft].@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10360730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==HTML markup==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10360740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML markup consists of several key components, including ''elements'' (and their ''attributes''), character-based ''data types'', and ''character references'' and ''entity references''.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10360750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another important component is the ''document type declaration''.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10360760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML [[Hello world program|Hello World]]: <source lang="html4strict"> <html> <head> <title>Hello HTML</title> </head> <body> <span>Hello World!</span> </body> </html> </source>@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10360770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Elements===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10360780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''See [[HTML element]]s for more detailed descriptions.''@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10360790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Elements are the basic structure for HTML markup.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10360800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Elements have two basic properties: attributes and content.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10360810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each attribute and each element's content has certain restrictions that must be followed for an HTML document to be considered valid.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10360820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An element usually has a start tag (e.g. <code><element-name></code>) and an end tag (e.g. <code></element-name></code>).@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10360830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The element's attributes are contained in the start tag and content is located between the tags (e.g. <code><element-name&nbsp;attribute="value">Content</element-name></code>).@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10360840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some elements, such as <code><nowiki></nowiki></code>, do not have any content and must not have a closing tag.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10360850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Listed below are several types of markup elements used in HTML.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10360860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Structural''' markup describes the purpose of text.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10360870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, <code><nowiki><h2>Golf</h2></nowiki></code> establishes "Golf" as a second-level [[heading]], which would be rendered in a browser in a manner similar to the "HTML markup" title at the start of this section.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10360880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Structural markup does not denote any specific rendering, but most Web browsers have standardized on how elements should be formatted.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10360890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Text may be further styled with [[Cascading Style Sheets]] (CSS).@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10360900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Presentational''' markup describes the appearance of the text, regardless of its function.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10360910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example <code><nowiki><b>boldface</b></nowiki></code> indicates that visual output devices should render "boldface" in bold text, but gives no indication what devices which are unable to do this (such as aural devices that read the text aloud) should do.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10360920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the case of both <code><nowiki><b>bold</b></nowiki></code> and <code><nowiki><i>italic</i></nowiki></code>, there are elements which usually have an equivalent visual rendering but are more semantic in nature, namely <code><nowiki><strong>strong emphasis</strong></nowiki></code> and <code><nowiki><em>emphasis</em></nowiki></code> respectively.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10360930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is easier to see how an aural user agent should interpret the latter two elements.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10360940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, they are not equivalent to their presentational counterparts: it would be undesirable for a screen-reader to emphasize the name of a book, for instance, but on a screen such a name would be italicized.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10360950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most presentational markup elements have become [[Deprecation|deprecated]] under the HTML 4.0 specification, in favor of [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] based style design.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10360960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Hypertext''' markup links parts of the document to other documents.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10360970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML up through version [[XHTML]] 1.1 requires the use of an anchor element to create a hyperlink in the flow of text: <code><nowiki><a>Wikipedia</a></nowiki></code>.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10360980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the <code>href</code> attribute must also be set to a valid [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]] so for example the HTML code, <code><nowiki><a&nbsp;href="http://en.wikipedia.org/">Wikipedia</a></nowiki></code>, will render the word "<span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikipedia.org/ Wikipedia]</span>" as a [[hyperlink]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10360985@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To link on an image, the anchor tag use the following syntax: <a href="url"><img src="image.gif" /></a>@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10360990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Attributes===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10361000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the attributes of an element are name-value pairs, separated by "=", and written within the start tag of an element, after the element's name.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10361010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The value may be enclosed in single or double quotes, although values consisting of certain characters can be left unquoted in HTML (but not XHTML).@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10361020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Leaving attribute values unquoted is considered unsafe.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10361030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In contrast with name-value pair attributes, there are some attributes that affect the element simply by their presence in the start tag of the element (like the <code>ismap</code> attribute for the <code>img</code> element).@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10361040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most elements can take any of several common attributes:@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10361050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* The <code>id</code> attribute provides a document-wide unique identifier for an element.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10361060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This can be used by stylesheets to provide presentational properties, by browsers to focus attention on the specific element, or by scripts to alter the contents or presentation of an element.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10361070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* The <code>class</code> attribute provides a way of classifying similar elements for presentation purposes.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10361080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, an HTML document might use the designation <code>class="notation"</code> to indicate that all elements with this class value are subordinate to the main text of the document.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10361090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such elements might be gathered together and presented as footnotes on a page instead of appearing in the place where they occur in the HTML source.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10361100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* An author may use the <code>style</code> non-attributal codes presentational properties to a particular element.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10361110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is considered better practice to use an element’s son- <code>id</code> page and select the element with a stylesheet, though sometimes this can be too cumbersome for a simple ad hoc application of styled properties.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10361120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* The <code>title</code> attribute is used to attach subtextual explanation to an element.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10361130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In most browsers this attribute is displayed as what is often referred to as a [[tooltip]].@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10361140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The generic inline element <code>span</code> can be used to demonstrate these various attributes:@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10361150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@::<source lang="html4strict"><span id="anId" class="aClass" style="color:blue;" title="Hypertext Markup Language">HTML</span></source>@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10361160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This example displays as <span id="anId" class="aClass" style="color:blue;" title="Hypertext Markup Language">HTML</span>; in most browsers, pointing the cursor at the abbreviation should display the title text "Hypertext Markup Language."@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10361170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most elements also take the language-related attributes <code>lang</code> and <code>dir</code>.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10361180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Character and entity references===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10361190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of version 4.0, HTML defines a set of [[List of XML and HTML character entity references|252]] [[character entity reference]]s and a set of 1,114,050 [[numeric character reference]]s, both of which allow individual characters to be written via simple markup, rather than literally.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10361200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A literal character and its markup counterpart are considered equivalent and are rendered identically.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10361210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ability to "escape" characters in this way allows for the characters <code>&lt;</code> and <code>&amp;</code> (when written as <code>&amp;lt;</code> and <code>&amp;amp;</code>, respectively) to be interpreted as character data, rather than markup.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10361220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, a literal <code>&lt;</code> normally indicates the start of a tag, and <code>&amp;</code> normally indicates the start of a character entity reference or numeric character reference; writing it as <code>&amp;amp;</code> or <code>&amp;#x26;</code> or <code>&amp;#38;</code> allows <code>&amp;</code> to be included in the content of elements or the values of attributes.@@@@1@50@@danf@17-8-2009
10361230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The double-quote character (<code>"</code>), when used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as <code>&amp;quot;</code> or <code>&amp;#x22;</code> or <code>&amp;#34;</code> when it appears within the attribute value itself.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10361240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The single-quote character (<code>'</code>), when used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as <code>&amp;#x27;</code> or <code>&amp;#39;</code> (should NOT be escaped as <code>&amp;apos;</code> except in XHTML documents) when it appears within the attribute value itself.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10361250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, since document authors often overlook the need to escape these characters, browsers tend to be very forgiving, treating them as markup only when subsequent text appears to confirm that intent.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10361260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Escaping also allows for characters that are not easily typed or that aren't even available in the document's [[character encoding]] to be represented within the element and attribute content.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10361270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the acute-accented <code>e</code> (<code>é</code>), a character typically found only on Western European keyboards, can be written in any HTML document as the entity reference <code>&amp;eacute;</code> or as the numeric references <code>&amp;#233;</code> or <code>&amp;#xE9;</code>.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10361280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The characters comprising those references (that is, the <code>&amp;</code>, the <code>;</code>, the letters in <code>eacute</code>, and so on) are available on all keyboards and are supported in all character encodings, whereas the literal <code>é</code> is not.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10361290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Data types===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10361300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML defines several [[data type]]s for element content, such as script data and stylesheet data, and a plethora of types for attribute values, including IDs, names, URIs, numbers, units of length, languages, media descriptors, colors, character encodings, dates and times, and so on.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10361310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All of these data types are specializations of character data.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10361320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===The Document Type Declaration===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10361330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In order to enable [[Document Type Definition]] (DTD)-based validation with SGML tools and in order to avoid the [[quirks mode]] in browsers, HTML documents can start with a [[Document Type Declaration]] (informally, a "DOCTYPE").@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10361340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The DTD to which the DOCTYPE refers contains machine-readable grammar specifying the permitted and prohibited content for a document conforming to such a DTD.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10361350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Browsers do not necessarily read the DTD, however.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10361360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most popular graphical browsers use DOCTYPE declarations (or the lack thereof) and other data at the beginning of sources to determine which rendering mode to use.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10361370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example:@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10361380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:<code><nowiki><!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"></nowiki></code>@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10361390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This declaration references the Strict DTD of HTML 4.01, which does not have presentational elements like <code><nowiki><font></nowiki></code>, leaving formatting to Cascading Style Sheets and the <code>span</code> and <code>div</code> tags.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10361400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@SGML-based validators read the DTD in order to properly parse the document and to perform validation.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10361410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In modern browsers, the HTML 4.01 Strict doctype activates standards layout mode for [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] as opposed to [[quirks mode]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10361420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10361430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Transitional DTD was intended to gradually phase in the changes made in the Strict DTD, while the Frameset DTD was intended for those documents which contained frames.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10361440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Semantic HTML==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10361450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is no official specification called "Semantic HTML", though the strict flavors of HTML discussed [[#Current flavors of HTML|below]] are a push in that direction.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10361460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Rather, semantic HTML refers to an objective and a practice to create documents with HTML that contain only the author's intended meaning, without any reference to how this meaning is presented or conveyed.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10361470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A classic example is the distinction between the emphasis element (<code>&lt;em&gt;</code>) and the italics element (<code>&lt;i&gt;</code>).@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10361480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Often the emphasis element is displayed in italics, so the presentation is typically the same.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10361490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, emphasizing something is different from listing the title of a book, for example, which may also be displayed in italics.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10361500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In purely semantic HTML, a book title would use a different element than emphasized text uses (for example a <code>&lt;span&gt;</code>), because they are meaningfully different things.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10361510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The goal of semantic HTML requires two things of authors:@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10361520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# To avoid the use of presentational markup (elements, attributes, and other entities).@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10361530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# To use available markup to differentiate the meanings of phrases and structure in the document.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10361540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So for example, the book title from above would need to have its own element and class specified, such as <code>&lt;cite class="booktitle"&gt;The Grapes of Wrath&lt;/cite&gt;.</code>@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10361545@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Here, the <code>&lt;cite&gt;</code> element is used because it most closely matches the meaning of this phrase in the text.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10361550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the <code>&lt;cite&gt;</code> element is not specific enough to this task, since we mean to cite specifically a book title as opposed to a newspaper article or an academic journal.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10361560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Semantic HTML also requires complementary specifications and software compliance with these specifications.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10361570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Primarily, the development and proliferation of [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] has led to increasing support for semantic HTML, because CSS provides designers with a rich language to alter the presentation of semantic-only documents.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10361580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the development of CSS, the need to include presentational properties in a document has virtually disappeared.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10361590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the advent and refinement of CSS and the increasing support for it in Web browsers, subsequent editions of HTML increasingly stress only using markup that suggests the semantic structure and phrasing of the document, like headings, paragraphs, quotes, and lists, instead of using markup which is written for visual purposes only, like <code>&lt;font&gt;</code>, <code>&lt;b&gt;</code> (bold), and <code>&lt;i&gt;</code> (italics).@@@@1@59@@danf@17-8-2009
10361600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of these elements are not permitted in certain varieties of HTML, like HTML 4.01 Strict.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10361610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@CSS provides a way to separate document semantics from the content's presentation, by keeping everything relevant to presentation defined in a CSS file.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10361620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See [[separation of style and content]].@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10361630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Semantic HTML offers many advantages.@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10361640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@First, it ensures consistency in style across elements that have the same meaning.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10361650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Every heading, every quotation, every similar element receives the same presentation properties.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10361660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Second, semantic HTML frees authors from the need to concern themselves with presentation details.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10361670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When writing the number two, for example, should it be written out in words ("two"), or should it be written as a numeral (2)?@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10361680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A semantic markup might enter something like <number>2</number> and leave presentation details to the stylesheet designers.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10361690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, an author might wonder where to break out quotations into separate indented blocks of text: with purely semantic HTML, such details would be left up to stylesheet designers.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10361700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Authors would simply indicate quotations when they occur in the text, and not concern themselves with presentation.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10361710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A third advantage is device independence and repurposing of documents.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10361720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A semantic HTML document can be paired with any number of stylesheets to provide output to computer screens (through Web browsers), high-resolution printers, handheld devices, aural browsers or braille devices for those with visual impairments, and so on.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10361730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To accomplish this, nothing needs to be changed in a well-coded semantic HTML document.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10361740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Readily available stylesheets make this a simple matter of pairing a semantic HTML document with the appropriate stylesheets.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10361750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Of course, the stylesheet's selectors need to match the appropriate properties in the HTML document.)@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10361760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some aspects of authoring documents make separating semantics from style (in other words, meaning from presentation) difficult.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10361770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some elements are hybrids, using presentation in their very meaning.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10361780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, a table displays content in a tabular form.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10361790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Often such content conveys the meaning only when presented in this way.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10361800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Repurposing a table for an aural device typically involves somehow presenting the table as an inherently visual element in an audible form.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10361810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, we frequently present lyrical songs&mdash;something inherently meant for audible presentation&mdash;and instead present them in textual form on a Web page.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10361820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For these types of elements, the meaning is not so easily separated from their presentation.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10361830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, for a great many of the elements used and meanings conveyed in HTML, the translation is relatively smooth.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10361840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Delivery of HTML==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10361850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML documents can be delivered by the same means as any other computer file; however, they are most often delivered in one of two forms: over [[HTTP]] servers and through e-mail.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10361860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Publishing HTML with HTTP===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10361870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[World Wide Web]] is composed primarily of HTML documents transmitted from a [[Web server]] to a Web browser using the [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP).@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10361880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, HTTP can be used to serve images, sound, and other content in addition to HTML.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10361890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To allow the Web browser to know how to handle the document it received, an indication of the [[file format]] of the document must be transmitted along with the document.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10361900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This vital [[metadata]] includes the [[MIME]] type (<tt>text/html</tt> for HTML 4.01 and earlier, <tt>application/xhtml+xml</tt> for XHTML 1.0 and later) and the character encoding (see [[Character encodings in HTML]]).@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10361910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In modern browsers, the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document affects how the document is interpreted.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10361920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A document sent with an XHTML MIME type, or ''served as application/xhtml+xml'', is expected to be [[XML#Well-formed documents|well-formed]] XML, and a syntax error causes the browser to fail to render the document.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10361930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same document sent with an HTML MIME type, or ''served as text/html'', might be displayed successfully, since Web browsers are more lenient with HTML.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10361940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, XHTML parsed in this way is not considered either proper XHTML or HTML, but so-called [[tag soup]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10361950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If the MIME type is not recognized as HTML, the Web browser should not attempt to render the document as HTML, even if the document is prefaced with a correct Document Type Declaration.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10361960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nevertheless, some Web browsers do examine the contents or URL of the document and attempt to infer the file type, despite this being forbidden by the HTTP 1.1 specification.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10361970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===HTML e-mail===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10361980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most graphical [[e-mail]] clients allow the use of a subset of HTML (often ill-defined) to provide formatting and [[semantic web|semantic]] markup capabilities not available with [[plain text]], like emphasized text, block quotations for replies, and diagrams or mathematical formulas that could not easily be described otherwise.@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10361990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of these clients include both a [[GUI]] editor for composing HTML e-mail messages and a rendering engine for displaying received HTML messages.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10362000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Use of HTML in e-mail is controversial because of compatibility issues, because it can be used in [[phishing]]/privacy attacks, because it can confuse [[E-Mail spam|spam]] filters, and because the message size is larger than plain text.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10362010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Naming conventions===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10362020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most common [[filename extension]] for [[computer file|files]] containing HTML is <tt>.html</tt>.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A common abbreviation of this is <tt>.htm</tt>; it originates from older operating systems and file systems, such as the [[DOS]] versions from the 80s and early 90s and [[File Allocation Table|FAT]], which limit file extensions to three letters.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10362040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both forms are widely supported by browsers.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10362050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Current flavors of HTML==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10362060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since its inception, HTML and its associated protocols gained acceptance relatively quickly.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, no clear standards existed in the early years of the language.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though its creators originally conceived of HTML as a semantic language devoid of presentation details, practical uses pushed many presentational elements and attributes into the language, driven largely by the various browser vendors.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10362090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The latest standards surrounding HTML reflect efforts to overcome the sometimes chaotic development of the language and to create a rational foundation for building both meaningful and well-presented documents.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10362100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To return HTML to its role as a semantic language, the [[World Wide Web Consortium|W3C]] has developed style languages such as [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] and [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]] to shoulder the burden of presentation.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10362110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In conjunction, the HTML specification has slowly reined in the presentational elements.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are two axes differentiating various flavors of HTML as currently specified: SGML-based HTML versus XML-based HTML (referred to as XHTML) on the one axis, and strict versus transitional (loose) versus frameset on the other axis.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10362130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===SGML-based versus XML-based HTML===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10362140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One difference in the latest HTML specifications lies in the distinction between the SGML-based specification and the XML-based specification.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10362150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The XML-based specification is usually called XHTML to distinguish it clearly from the more traditional definition; however, the root element name continues to be 'html' even in the XHTML-specified HTML.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10362160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The W3C intended XHTML 1.0 to be identical to HTML 4.01 except where limitations of XML over the more complex SGML require workarounds.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10362170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because XHTML and HTML are closely related, they are sometimes documented in parallel.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10362180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In such circumstances, some authors conflate the two names as (X)HTML or X(HTML).@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10362190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like HTML 4.01, XHTML 1.0 has three sub-specifications: strict, loose, and frameset.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Aside from the different opening declarations for a document, the differences between an HTML 4.01 and XHTML 1.0 document&mdash;in each of the corresponding DTDs&mdash;are largely syntactic.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10362210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The underlying syntax of HTML allows many shortcuts that XHTML does not, such as elements with optional opening or closing tags, and even EMPTY elements which must not have an end tag.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10362220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By contrast, XHTML requires all elements to have an opening tag or a closing tag.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10362230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML, however, also introduces a new shortcut: an XHTML tag may be opened and closed within the same tag, by including a slash before the end of the tag like this: <code>&lt;br/&gt;</code>.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10362240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The introduction of this shorthand, which is not used in the SGML declaration for HTML 4.01, may confuse earlier software unfamiliar with this new convention.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10362250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To understand the subtle differences between HTML and XHTML, consider the transformation of a valid and well-formed XHTML 1.0 document that adheres to Appendix C (see below) into a valid HTML 4.01 document.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10362260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To make this translation requires the following steps:@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10362270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''The language for an element should be specified with a <code>lang</code> attribute rather than the XHTML <code>xml:lang</code> attribute.'''@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10362280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML uses XML's built in language-defining functionality attribute.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10362290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''Remove the XML namespace (<code>xmlns=URI</code>).'''@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10362300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML has no facilities for namespaces.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10362310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''Change the document type declaration''' from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01. (see [[#The Document Type Definition|DTD section]] for further explanation).@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10362320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# If present, '''remove the XML declaration.'''@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10362330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Typically this is: <code><?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?></code>).@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10362340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''Ensure that the document’s MIME type is set to <code>text/html</code>.'''@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10362350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For both HTML and XHTML, this comes from the HTTP <code>Content-Type</code> header sent by the server.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10362360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@# '''Change the XML empty-element syntax to an HTML style empty element''' (<code>&lt;br/&gt;</code> to <code>&lt;br&gt;</code>).@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10362370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those are the main changes necessary to translate a document from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10362380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To translate from HTML to XHTML would also require the addition of any omitted opening or closing tags.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10362390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Whether coding in HTML or XHTML it may just be best to always include the optional tags within an HTML document rather than remembering which tags can be omitted.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10362400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A well-formed XHTML document adheres to all the syntax requirements of XML.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A valid document adheres to the content specification for XHTML, which describes the document structure.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10362420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The W3C recommends several conventions to ensure an easy migration between HTML and XHTML (see [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/#guidelines HTML Compatibility Guidelines]).@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10362430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The following steps can be applied to XHTML 1.0 documents only:@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10362440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Include both <code>xml:lang</code> and <code>lang</code> attributes on any elements assigning language.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Use the empty-element syntax only for elements specified as empty in HTML.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10362460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Include an extra space in empty-element tags: for example <code>&lt;br&nbsp;/&gt;</code> instead of <code>&lt;br/&gt;</code>.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10362470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty (for example, <code>&lt;div&gt;</code><code>&lt;/div&gt;</code>, not <code>&lt;div /&gt;</code>).@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10362480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Omit the XML declaration.@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10362490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By carefully following the W3C’s compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10362500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For documents that are XHTML 1.0 and have been made compatible in this way, the W3C permits them to be served either as HTML (with a <code>text/html</code> [[MIME type]]), or as XHTML (with an <code>application/xhtml+xml</code> or <code>application/xml</code> MIME type).@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10362510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, which adheres strictly to the XML specifications for parsing the document's contents.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10362520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Transitional versus Strict ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10362530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The latest SGML-based specification HTML 4.01 and the earliest XHTML version include three sub-specifications: Strict, Transitional (once called Loose), and Frameset.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10362540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Strict variant represents the standard proper, whereas the Transitional and Frameset variants were developed to assist in the transition from earlier versions of HTML (including HTML 3.2).@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10362550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Transitional and Frameset variants allow for [[presentational markup]] whereas the Strict variant encourages the use of style sheets through its omission of most presentational markup.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10362560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The primary differences which make the Transitional variant more permissive than the Strict variant (the differences as the same in HTML 4 and XHTML 1.0) are:@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10362570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''A looser content model'''@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10362580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** Inline elements and plain text (#PCDATA) are allowed directly in: <code>body</code>, <code>blockquote</code>, <code>form</code>, <code>noscript</code> and <code>noframes</code>@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10362590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''Presentation related elements'''@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10362600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** underline (<code>u</code>)@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10362610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** strike-through (<code>del</code>)@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10362620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>center</code>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10362630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>font</code>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10362640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>basefont</code>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10362650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''Presentation related attributes'''@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10362660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>background</code> and <code>bgcolor</code> attributes for <code>body</code> element.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10362670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>align</code> attribute on <code>div</code>, <code>form</code>, <code>paragraph</code> (p), and heading (<code>h1</code>...<code>h6</code>) elements@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>align</code>, <code>noshade</code>, <code>size</code>, and <code>width</code> attributes on <code>hr</code> element@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10362690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>align</code>, <code>border</code>, <code>vspace</code>, and <code>hspace</code> attributes on <code>img</code> and <code>object</code> elements@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10362700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>align</code> attribute on <code>legend</code> and <code>caption</code> elements@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10362710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>align</code> and <code>bgcolor</code> on <code>table</code> element@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10362720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>nowrap</code>, <code>bgcolor</code>, <code>width</code>, <code>height</code> on <code>td</code> and <code>th</code> elements@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10362730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>bgcolor</code> attribute on <code>tr</code> element@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10362740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>clear</code> attribute on <code>br</code> element@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10362750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>compact</code> attribute on <code>dl</code>, <code>dir</code> and <code>menu</code> elements@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10362760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>type</code>, <code>compact</code>, and <code>start</code> attributes on <code>ol</code> and <code>ul</code> elements@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10362770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>type</code> and <code>value</code> attributes on <code>li</code> element@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10362780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>width</code> attribute on <code>pre</code> element@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10362790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''Additional elements in Transitional specification'''@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10362800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>menu</code> list (no substitute, though unordered list is recommended; may return in XHTML 2.0 specification)@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10362810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>dir</code> list (no substitute, though unordered list is recommended)@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10362820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>isindex</code> (element requires server-side support and is typically added to documents server-side)@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10362830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>applet</code> (deprecated in favor of object element)@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10362840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''The <code>language</code> attribute on script element''' (presumably redundant with <code>type</code> attribute, though this is maintained for legacy reasons).@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10362850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''Frame related entities'''@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10362860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>frameset</code> element (used in place of body for frameset DTD)@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10362870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>frame</code> element@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10362880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>iframe</code>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10362890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>noframes</code>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10362900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** <code>target</code> attribute on <code>anchor</code>, client-side image-map (<code>imagemap</code>), <code>link</code>, <code>form</code>, and <code>base</code> elements@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10362910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Frameset versus transitional===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10362920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to the above transitional differences, the frameset specifications (whether XHTML 1.0 or HTML 4.01) specifies a different content model: <source lang="html4strict"> <html> <head> <title></title> </head><frameset><frame></frame> <noframes> <body></body> </noframes></frameset> </html> </source>@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10362930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Summary of flavors ===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10362940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As this list demonstrates, the loose flavors of the specification are maintained for legacy support.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10362950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10362960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10362970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The primary achievement in the move from XHTML 1.0 to XHTML 1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10362980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML 1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML 1.1 specification.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10362990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise someone looking for the loose (transitional) or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML 1.1 support (much of it is contained in the legacy or frame modules).@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10363000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10363010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So for example XHTML 1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as [[MathML]] (a presentational and semantic math language based on XML) and [[XForms]] &mdash; a new highly advanced web-form technology to replace the existing HTML forms.@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10363020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In summary, the HTML 4.01 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clear written specification based on SGML.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10363030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML 1.0, ported this specification, as is, to the new XML defined specification.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10363040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Next, XHTML 1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10363050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML 2.0 will be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10363060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Hypertext features not in HTML ==@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10363070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML lacks some of the features found in earlier hypertext systems, such as [[typed link]]s, [[transclusion]], [[source tracking]], [[fat link]]s, and more.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10363080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even some hypertext features that were in early versions of HTML have been ignored by most popular web browsers until recently, such as the [[Hyperlink|link]] element and in-browser Web page editing.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10363090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sometimes Web services or browser manufacturers remedy these shortcomings.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10363100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, [[wiki]]s and [[content management system]]s allow surfers to edit the Web pages they visit.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10370010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>IBM</article>@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10370020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''International Business Machines Corporation,''' abbreviated '''IBM''' and nicknamed '''"Big Blue,"''' , is a [[multinational corporation|multinational]] [[computer]] [[technology]] and [[consulting]] [[corporation]] headquartered in [[Armonk, New York]], [[United States of America|USA]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10370030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company is one of the few [[information technology]] companies with a continuous history dating back to the 19th century.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10370040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM manufactures and sells computer [[computer hardware|hardware]] and [[computer software|software]], and offers infrastructure services, [[Internet hosting service|hosting services]], and [[consultant|consulting services]] in areas ranging from [[mainframe computer]]s to [[nanotechnology]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10370050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has been known through most of its recent history as the world's largest computer company; with over 388,000 employees worldwide, IBM is the largest [[information technology]] employer in the world.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10370060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Despite falling behind [[Hewlett-Packard]] in total revenue since 2006, it remains the most profitable.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10370070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM holds more [[patent]]s than any other U.S. based technology company.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10370080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has engineers and consultants in over 170 countries and [[IBM Research]] has eight laboratories worldwide.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10370090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM employees have earned three [[Nobel Prize]]s, four [[Turing Award]]s, five [[National Medal of Technology|National Medals of Technology]], and five [[National Medal of Science|National Medals of Science]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10370100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a chip maker, IBM has been among the [[Worldwide Top 20 Semiconductor Sales Leaders]] in past years, and in 2007 IBM ranked second in the list of largest software companies in the world.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10370110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10370120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company which became IBM was founded in 1896 as the Tabulating Machine Company by [[Herman Hollerith]], in [[Broome County, New York]] ([[Endicott, New York]], Where it still maintains very limited operations).@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10370130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was incorporated as [[Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (CTR)]] on [[June 16]], [[1911]], and was listed on the [[New York Stock Exchange]] in 1916.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10370140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM adopted its current name in 1924, when it became a [[Fortune 500]] company.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10370150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1950s, IBM became the dominant vendor in the emerging [[computer]] industry with the release of the [[IBM 701]] and other models in the [[IBM 700/7000 series]] of [[mainframes]].@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10370160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company's dominance became even more pronounced in the 1960s and 1970s with the [[IBM System/360]] and [[IBM System/370]] mainframes, however antitrust actions by the [[United States Department of Justice]], the rise of [[minicomputer]] companies like [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] and [[Data General]], and the introduction of the [[microprocessor]] all contributed to dilution of IBM's position in the industry, eventually leading the company to diversify into other areas including personal computers, software, and services.@@@@1@73@@danf@17-8-2009
10370170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1981 IBM introduced the [[IBM Personal Computer]] which is the original version and progenitor of the [[IBM PC compatible]] hardware [[platform (computing)|platform]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10370180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Descendants of the IBM PC compatibles make up the majority of [[microcomputer]]s on the market today.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10370190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM sold its PC division to the Chinese company [[Lenovo]] on [[May 1]], [[2005]] for $655 million in cash and $600 million in Lenovo stock.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10370200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[January 25]], [[2007]], [[Ricoh]] announced purchase of IBM Printing Systems Division for $725 million and investment in 3-year joint venture to form a new Ricoh subsidiary, [[InfoPrint Solutions Company]]; Ricoh will own a 51% share, and IBM will own a 49% share in ''InfoPrint''.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10370210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Controversies===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10370220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The author [[Edwin Black]] has alleged that, during [[World War II]], IBM CEO [[Thomas J. Watson]] used overseas subsidiaries to provide the [[Third Reich]] with [[Unit record equipment|unit record]] [[data processing]] machines, supplies and services that helped the [[Nazis]] to efficiently track down European Jews, with sizable profits for the company.@@@@1@51@@danf@17-8-2009
10370230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM denies that they had control over these subsidiaries after the Nazis took power.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10370240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A lawsuit against IBM based on these allegations was dismissed.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10370250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In support of the Allied war effort in World War II, from 1943 to 1945 IBM produced approximately 346,500 M1 Carbine (Caliber .30 carbine) light rifles for the U.S. Military.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10370260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Current projects==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10370270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Eclipse===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10370280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Eclipse is a platform-independent, [[Java (programming language)|Java]]-based [[software framework]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10370290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Eclipse was originally a [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] product developed by IBM as a successor of the [[VisualAge]] family of tools.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10370300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Eclipse has subsequently been released as [[free software|free]]/[[open source]] software under the [[Eclipse Public License]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10370310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===developerWorks===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10370320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@developerWorks is a website run by [[IBM]] for [[software developer]]s and IT professionals.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10370330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It contains a large number of how-to articles and tutorials, as well as software downloads and code samples, discussion forums, podcasts, blogs, wikis, and other resources for developers and technical professionals.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10370340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Subjects range from open, industry-standard technologies like [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Linux]], [[Service-oriented architecture|SOA]] and [[web services]], [[web development]], [[Ajax (programming)|Ajax]], [[PHP]], and [[XML]] to IBM's products ([[WebSphere]], [[Rational Software|Rational]], [[Lotus Software|Lotus]], [[Tivoli Systems, Inc.|Tivoli]] and [[IBM DB2|DB2]]).@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10370350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007 developerWorks was inducted into the Jolt Hall of Fame.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10370360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===alphaWorks===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10370370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@alphaWorks is IBM's source for emerging software technologies.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10370380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These technologies include:@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10370390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*'''Flexible Internet Evaluation Report Architecture''' - A highly flexible architecture for the design, display, and reporting of Internet surveys.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10370400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*'''[[IBM History Flow tool|IBM History Flow Visualization Application]]''' - A tool for visualizing dynamic, evolving documents and the interactions of multiple collaborating authors.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10370410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*'''IBM [[Linux]] on POWER Performance Simulator''' - A tool that provides users of Linux on Power a set of performance models for IBM's POWER processors.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10370420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*'''Database File Archive And Restoration Management''' - An application for archiving and restoring hard disk files using file references stored in a database.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10370430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*'''Policy Management for Autonomic Computing''' - A policy-based autonomic management infrastructure that simplifies the automation of IT and business processes.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10370440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*'''FairUCE''' - A spam filter that verifies sender identity instead of filtering content.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10370450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*'''Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) SDK''' - A Java SDK that supports the implementation, composition, and deployment of applications working with unstructured information.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10370460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*'''Accessibility Browser''' - A web-browser specifically designed to assist people with visual impairments, to be released as open-source software.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10370470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also known as the "A-Browser," the technology will aim to eliminate the need for a mouse, relying instead completely on voice-controls, buttons and predefined shortcut keys.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10370480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Semiconductor design and manufacturing===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10370490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Virtually all modern [[video game console|console gaming systems]] use [[IC design|microprocessors developed]] by IBM.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10370500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Xbox 360]] contains the [[Xenon (processor)|Xenon]] tri-core processor, which was designed and produced by IBM in less than 24 months.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10370510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sony's [[PlayStation 3]] features the [[Cell microprocessor| Cell BE microprocessor]] designed jointly by IBM, [[Toshiba]], and [[Sony]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10370520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Nintendo]]'s [[History of video game consoles (seventh generation)|seventh-generation]] console, [[Wii]], features an IBM chip codenamed [[Broadway (microprocessor)|Broadway]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10370530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The older [[Nintendo GameCube]] also utilizes the [[Gekko (microprocessor)|Gekko]] processor, designed by IBM.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10370540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In May 2002, IBM and Butterfly.net, Inc. announced the Butterfly Grid, a commercial [[grid computing|grid]] for the online video gaming market.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10370550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In March 2006, IBM announced separate agreements with Hoplon Infotainment, Online Game Services Incorporated (OGSI), and RenderRocket to provide on-demand content management and [[blade server]] computing resources.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10370560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Open Client Offering===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10370570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM announced it will launch its new software, called "Open Client Offering" which is to run on [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Linux]] and [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s [[Macintosh]].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10370580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company states that its new product allows businesses to offer employees a choice of using the same software on Windows and its alternatives.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10370590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This means that "Open Client Offering" is to cut costs of managing whether Linux or Apple relative to Windows.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10370600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There will be no necessity for companies to pay Microsoft for its licenses for operations since the operations will no longer rely on software which is Windows-based.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10370610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of Microsoft's office alternatives is the Open Document Format software, whose development IBM supports.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10370620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is going to be used for several tasks like: word processing, presentations, along with collaboration with [[Lotus Notes]], instant messaging and blog tools as well as an [[Internet Explorer]] competitor – the [[Firefox]] web browser.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10370630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM plans to install Open Client on 5 percent of its desktop PCs.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10370640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===UC2: Unified Communications and Collaboration===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10370650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''UC2''' (''Unified Communications and Collaboration'') is an IBM and [[Cisco]] joint project based on [[Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]] and [[OSGi]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10370660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It will offer the numerous Eclipse application developers a unified platform for an easier work environment.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10370670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The software based on UC2 platform will provide major enterprises with easy-to-use communication solutions, such as the Lotus based [[Sametime]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10370680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the future the Sametime users will benefit from such additional functions as [[click-to-call]] and [[Voicemail|voice mailing]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10370690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Internal programs===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10370700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Extreme Blue]] is a company initiative that uses experienced IBM engineers, talented interns, and business managers to develop high-value technology.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10370710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The project is designed to analyze emerging business needs and the technologies that can solve them.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10370720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These projects mostly involve rapid-prototyping of high-profile software and hardware projects.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10370730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In May 2007, IBM unveiled [[Project Big Green]] -- a re-direction of $1 billion per year across its businesses to increase energy efficiency.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10370740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==IBM Software Group==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10370750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This group is one of the major divisions of IBM.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10370760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The various brands include:@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10370770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[IBM Information Management Software|Information Management Software]] &mdash; database servers and tools, text analytics, content management, business process management and business intelligence.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10370780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Lotus Software]] &mdash; Groupware, collaboration and business software.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10370790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Acquired in 1995.@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10370800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Rational Software]] &mdash; Software development and application lifecycle management.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10370810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Acquired in 2002.@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10370820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Tivoli Software]] &mdash; Systems management.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10370830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Acquired in 1996.@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10370840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[IBM WebSphere|WebSphere]] &mdash; Integration and application infrastructure software.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10370850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Environmental record==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10370860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has a long history of dealing with its environmental problems.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10370870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It established a corporate policy on environmental protection in 1971, with the support of a comprehensive global environmental management system.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10370880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to IBM’s stats, its total hazardous waste decreased by 44 percent over the past five years, and has decreased by 94.6 percent since 1987.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10370890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM's total hazardous waste calculation consists of waste from both non-manufacturing and manufacturing operations.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10370900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Waste from manufacturing operations includes waste recycled in closed-loop systems where process chemicals are recovered and for subsequent reuse, rather than just disposing and using new chemical materials.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10370910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over the years, IBM has redesigned processes to eliminate almost all closed loop recycling and now uses more environmental-friendly materials in their place.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10370920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM was recognized as one of the "Top 20 Best Workplaces for Commuters" by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ([[EPA]]) in 2005.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10370930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This was to recognize the Fortune 500 companies that provided their employees with excellent commuter benefits that helped reduce traffic and air pollution.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10370940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the birthplace of IBM, [[Endicott, New York|Endicott]], suffered IBM's pollution for decades.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10370950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM used liquid cleaning agents in its circuit board assembly operation for more than two decades, and six spills and leaks incidents were recorded, including one 1979 leak of 4,100 gallons from an underground tank.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10370960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These left behind volatile organic compounds in the town's soil and aquifer.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10370970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Trace elements of volatile organic compounds have been identified in the Endicott’s drinking water, but the levels are within regulatory limits.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10370980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, from 1980, IBM has pumped out 78,000 gallons of chemicals, including trichloroethane, Freon, benzene and perchloroethene to the air and allegedly caused several cancer cases among the villagers.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10370990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM Endicott has been identified by the Department of Environmental Conservation as the major source of pollution, though traces of contaminants from a local dry cleaner and other polluters were also found.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10371000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Despite the amount of pollutant, state health officials cannot say whether air or water pollution in Endicott has actually caused any health problems.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10371010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Village officials say tests show that the water is safe to drink.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10371020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Solar power ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10371030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tokyo Ohka Kogyo Co., Ltd. (TOK) and IBM are collaborating to establish new, low-cost methods for bringing the next generation of solar energy products to market,this is, [[CIGS]] (Copper-Indium-Gallium-Selenide) [[solar cell]] modules.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10371040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Use of [[thin film]] technology, such as CIGS, has great promise in reducing the overall cost of solar cells and further enabling their widespread adoption.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10371050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM is exploring four main areas of photovoltaic research: using current technologies to develop cheaper and more efficient [[silicon]] [[solar cell]]s, developing new solution processed [[thin film]] photovoltaic devices, [[concentrator photovoltaics]], and future generation photovoltaic architectures based upon [[nanostructures]] such as [[semiconductor quantum dot]]s and [[nanowire]]s.@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10371060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Dr. Supratik Guha is the leading scientist in IBM photovoltaics.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10371070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Corporate culture of IBM==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10371080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Big Blue''' is a nickname for IBM; several theories exist regarding its origin.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10371090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One theory, substantiated by people who worked for IBM at the time, is that IBM field reps coined the term in the 1960s, referring to the color of the mainframes IBM installed in the 1960s and early 1970s.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10371100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"All blue" was a term used to describe a loyal IBM customer, and business writers later picked up the term.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10371110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another theory suggests that Big Blue simply refers to the Company's [[logo]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10371120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A third theory suggests that Big Blue refers to a former company dress code that required many IBM employees to wear only white shirts and many wore blue suits.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10371130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In any event, IBM keyboards, typewriters, and some other manufactured devices, have played on the "Big Blue" concept, using the color for enter keys and carriage returns.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10371140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Sales===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10371150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has often been described as having a sales-centric or a sales-oriented business culture.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10371160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Traditionally, many IBM executives and general managers are chosen from the sales force.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10371170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The current CEO, [[Sam Palmisano]], for example, joined the company as a salesman and, unusually for CEOs of major corporations, has no MBA or postgraduate qualification.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10371180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Middle and top management are often enlisted to give direct support to salesmen when pitching sales to important customers.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10371190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===The uniform===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10371200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A dark (or gray) suit, white shirt, and a "sincere" tie was the public uniform for IBM employees for most of the 20th Century.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10371210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During IBM's management transformation in the 1990s, CEO [[Lou Gerstner]] relaxed these codes, normalizing the dress and behavior of IBM employees to resemble their counterparts in other large technology companies.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10371220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===IBM company values and "Jam"===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10371230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2003, IBM embarked on an ambitious project to rewrite company values.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10371240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using its ''Jam'' technology, the company hosted Intranet-based online discussions on key business issues with 50,000 employees over 3 days.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10371250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The discussions were analyzed by sophisticated text analysis software (eClassifier) to mine online comments for themes.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10371260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result of the 2003 Jam, the company values were updated to reflect three modern business, marketplace and employee views: "Dedication to every client's success", "Innovation that matters - for our company and for the world", "Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships".@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10371270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, another Jam was conducted during which 52,000 employees exchanged best practices for 72 hours.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10371280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They focused on finding actionable ideas to support implementation of the values previously identified.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10371290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A new post-Jam Ratings event was developed to allow IBMers to select key ideas that support the values.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10371300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The board of directors cited this Jam when awarding Palmisano a pay rise in the spring of 2005.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10371310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In July and September 2006, Palmisano launched another jam called [https://www.globalinnovationjam.com/ InnovationJam].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10371320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@InnovationJam was the largest online brainstorming session ever with more than 150,000 participants from 104 countries.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10371330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The participants were IBM employees, members of IBM employees' families, universities, partners, and customers.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10371340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@InnovationJam was divided in two sessions (one in July and one in September) for 72 hours each and generated more than 46,000 ideas.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10371350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In November 2006, IBM declared that they will invest $US 100 million in the 10 best ideas from InnovationJam.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10371360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Open source===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10371370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has been influenced by the [[Open Source Initiative]], and began supporting [[Linux]] in 1998.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10371380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on [[Linux]] through the IBM [[Linux Technology Center]], which includes over 300 [[Linux kernel]] developers.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10371390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has also released code under different [[open-source license]]s, such as the platform-independent software framework [[Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]] (worth approximately US$40 million at the time of the donation) and the [[Java (programming language)|Java]]-based [[relational database management system]] (RDBMS) [[Apache Derby]].@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10371400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM's open source involvement has not been trouble-free, however (see ''[[SCO v. IBM]]'').@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10371410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Corporate affairs ==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10371420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Diversity and workforce issues ===@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10371430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM's efforts to promote workforce diversity and equal opportunity date back at least to [[World War I]], when the company hired disabled veterans.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10371440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM was the only technology company ranked in ''Working Mother'' magazine's Top 10 for 2004, and one of two technology companies in 2005 (the other company being Hewlett-Packard).@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10371450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[September 21]], [[1953]], [[Thomas J. Watson]], the CEO at the time, sent out a very controversial letter to all IBM employees stating that IBM needed to hire the best people, regardless of their race, ethnic origin, or gender.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10371460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1984, IBM added sexual preference.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10371470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He stated that this would give IBM a competitive advantage because IBM would then be able to hire talented people its competitors would turn down.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10371480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company has traditionally resisted [[trade union|labor union]] organizing, although unions represent some IBM workers outside the United States.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10371490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1990s, two major [[pension]] program changes, including a conversion to a cash balance plan, resulted in an employee [[class action]] lawsuit alleging [[age discrimination]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10371500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM employees won the lawsuit and arrived at a partial settlement, although appeals are still underway.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10371510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM also settled a major overtime class-action lawsuit in 2006.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10371520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Historically IBM has had a good reputation of long-term staff retention with few large scale layoffs.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10371530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In more recent years there have been a number of broad sweeping cuts to the workforce as IBM attempts to adapt to changing market conditions and a declining profit base.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10371540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After posting weaker than expected revenues in the first quarter of 2005, IBM eliminated 14,500 positions from its workforce, predominantly in Europe.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10371550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In May 2005, IBM Ireland said to staff that the MD(Micro-electronics Division) facility was closing down by the end of 2005 and offered a settlement to staff.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10371560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, all staff that wished to stay with the Company were redeployed within IBM Ireland.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10371570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The production moved to a company called Amkor in Singapore who purchased IBM's Microelectronics business in Singapore and is widely agreed that IBM promised this Company a full load capacity in return for the purchase of the facility.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10371580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[June 8]] [[2005]], IBM Canada Ltd. eliminated approximately 700 positions.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10371590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM projects these as part of a strategy to "rebalance" its portfolio of professional skills & businesses.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10371600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[IBM India]] and other IBM offices in [[China]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Costa Rica]] have been witnessing a recruitment boom and steady growth in number of employees due to lower wages.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10371610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[October 10]] [[2005]], IBM became the first major company in the world to formally commit to not using [[genetic testing|genetic information]] in its employment decisions.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10371620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This came just a few months after IBM announced its support of the [[National Geographic Society]]'s [[The Genographic Project|Genographic Project]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10371630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==== Gay rights ====@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10371640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM provides employees' same-sex partners with benefits and provides an anti-discrimination clause.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10371650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Human Rights Campaign]] has consistently rated IBM 100% on its index of gay-friendliness since 2003 (in 2002, the year it began compiling its report on major companies, IBM scored 86%).@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10371660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Logos===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10371670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Logo]]s designed in the 1970s tended to be sensitive to the technical limitations of photocopiers, which were then being widely deployed.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10371680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A logo with large solid areas tended to be poorly copied by copiers in the 1970s, so companies preferred logos that avoided large solid areas.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10371690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 1972 IBM logos are an example of this tendency.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10371700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the advent of digital copiers in the mid-1980s this technical restriction had largely disappeared; at roughly the same time, the 13-bar logo was abandoned for almost the opposite reason it was difficult to render accurately on the low-resolution digital printers (240 dots per inch) of the time.@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10371710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Board of directors===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10371720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Current members of the [[board of directors]] of IBM are:@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10371730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Cathleen Black President, [[Hearst Corporation|Hearst Magazines]]@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10371740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[William Brody]] President, [[Johns Hopkins University]]@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10371750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Ken Chenault]] Chairman and CEO, [[American Express]] Company@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10371760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Juergen Dormann Chairman of the Board, ABB Ltd@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10371770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Michael Eskew]] Chairman and CEO, [[United Parcel Service]], Inc.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10371780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Shirley Ann Jackson]] President, [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10371790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Minoru Makihara Senior Corporate Advisor and former Chairman, [[Mitsubishi Corporation]]@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10371800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Lucio Noto Managing Partner, Midstream Partners LLC@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10371810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[James W. Owens]] Chairman and CEO, [[Caterpillar Inc.]]@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10371820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Samuel J. Palmisano]] Chairman, President and CEO, IBM@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10371830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Joan Spero President, [[Doris Duke]] Charitable Foundation@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10371840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Sidney Taurell, Chairman and CEO, [[Eli Lilly and Company]]@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10371850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Lorenzo Zambrano]] Chairman and CEO, [[Cemex]] SAB de CV@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009