10290010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>French language</article>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10290020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''French''' (''français'', ) is today spoken around the world by 72 to 130 million people as a [[first language|native]] language, and by about 190 to 600 million people as a [[second language|second]] or third language, with significant speakers in 54 countries.@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10290030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most native speakers of the language live in [[France]], where the language originated.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10290040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rest live in [[Canada]], [[Belgium]] and [[Switzerland]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10290050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is a descendant of the [[Latin]] language of the [[Roman Empire]], as are languages such as [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and [[Romanian language|Romanian]].@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10290060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its development was also influenced by the native [[Celtic languages]] of Roman [[Gaul]] and by the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] language of the post-Roman [[Frankish]] invaders.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10290070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is an [[official language]] in [[List of countries where French is an official language|29 countries]], most of which form what is called in French ''La [[Francophonie]]'', the community of French-speaking nations.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10290080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is an official language of all [[United Nations]] agencies and a [[List of international organisations which have French as an official language|large number of international organizations]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10290090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the [[European Union]], 129 million (26% of the 497,198,740) people in 27 member states speak French, of which 59 million (12%) speak it natively and 69 million (14%) claim to speak it as a second language, which makes it the third most spoken second language in the Union, after English and German respectively.@@@@1@55@@danf@17-8-2009
10290100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Geographic distribution==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10290110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Europe===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Legal status in France====@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10290130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Per the [[Constitution of France]], French has been the official language since 1992 (although previous legal texts have made it official since 1539, see [[ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts]]).@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10290140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[France]] mandates the use of French in official government publications, public [[education]] outside of specific cases (though these dispositions are often ignored) and legal [[contract]]s; [[advertisement]]s must bear a translation of foreign words.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10290150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to French, there are also a variety of regional languages.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10290160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@France has signed the European Charter for Regional Languages but has not ratified it since that would go against the 1958 Constitution.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10290170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Switzerland====@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is one of the four official languages of [[Switzerland]] (along with [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]) and is spoken in the part of Switzerland called ''[[Romandie]]''.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10290190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is the native language of about 20% of the Swiss population.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10290200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Belgium====@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[Belgium]], French is the official language of [[Wallonia]] (excluding the [[East Cantons]], which are [[German language|German-speaking]]) and one of the two official languages—along with [[Dutch language|Dutch]]—of the [[Brussels-Capital Region]] where it is spoken by the majority of the population, though often not as their primary language.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10290220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French and German are not official languages nor recognised minority languages in the [[Flemish Region]], although along borders with the Walloon and Brussels-Capital regions, there are a dozen of [[municipalities with language facilities]] for French-speakers; a mirroring situation exists for the Walloon Region with respect to the Dutch and German languages.@@@@1@51@@danf@17-8-2009
10290230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In total, native French-speakers make up about 40% of the country's population, the remaining 60% speak Dutch, the latter of which 59% claim to speak French as a second language.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10290240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is thus known by an estimated 75% of all Belgians, either as a mother tongue, as second, or as third language.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10290250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Monaco and Andorra====@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10290260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although [[Monégasque language|Monégasque]] is the national language of the [[Principality of Monaco]], French is the only official language, and French nationals make up some 47% of the population.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10290270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Catalan language|Catalan]] is the only official language of [[Andorra]]; however, French is commonly used due to the proximity to France.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10290280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French nationals make up 7% of the population.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10290290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Italy====@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also an official language, along with [[Italian language|Italian]], in the province of [[Aosta Valley]], [[Italy]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10290310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, a number of [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]] dialects are spoken in the province, although they do not have official recognition.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10290320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Luxembourg====@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is one of three official languages of [[Luxembourg|the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg ]] ;@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10290340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@the other official languages of Luxembourg are@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10290350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[German language|German]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10290360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Lëtzebuergesch|Luxemburgish]].@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Luxemburgish is the natively-spoken language of Luxembourg ;@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10290380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German, while secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10290390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====The Channel Islands====@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10290400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although [[Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]], the two bailiwicks collectively referred to as the [[Channel Islands]], are separate entities, both use French to some degree, mostly in an administrative capacity.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10290410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Jersey Legal French]] is the standardized variety used in Jersey.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10290420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===The Americas===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10290430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Legal status in Canada====@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10290440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@About 7 million [[Canadian]]s are native French-speakers, of whom 6 million live in [[Quebec]], and French is one of [[Canada]]'s two official languages (the other being [[English language|English]]).@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10290450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various provisions of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] deal with Canadians' right to access services in both languages, including the right to a publicly funded education in the minority language of each province, where numbers warrant in a given locality.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10290460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By [[law]], the federal government must operate and provide services in both English and French, proceedings of the [[Parliament of Canada]] must be translated into both these languages, and most products sold in Canada must have labeling in both languages.@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10290470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Overall, about 13% of Canadians have knowledge of French only, while 18% have knowledge of both English and French.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10290480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In contrast, over 82% of the population of Quebec speaks French natively, and almost 96% speak it as either their first or second language.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10290490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has been the sole official language of Quebec since 1974.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10290500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The legal status of French was further strengthened with the 1977 adoption of the [[Charter of the French Language]] (popularly known as ''Bill 101''), which guarantees that every person has a right to have the civil administration, the health and social services, corporations, and enterprises in Quebec communicate with him in French.@@@@1@52@@danf@17-8-2009
10290510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the Charter mandates that certain provincial government services, such as those relating to health and education, be offered to the English minority in its language, where numbers warrant, its primary purpose is to cement the role of French as the primary language used in the public sphere.@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10290520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Image:Knowledge French EU map.png|right|thumb|240px|Knowledge of French in the European Union and candidate countries]] The provision of the Charter that has arguably had the most significant impact mandates French-language [[education]] unless a child's parents or siblings have received the majority of their own primary education in English within Canada, with minor exceptions.@@@@1@51@@danf@17-8-2009
10290530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This measure has reversed a historical trend whereby a large number of immigrant children would attend English schools.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10290540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In so doing, the Charter has greatly contributed to the "visage français" (French face) of Montreal in spite of its growing immigrant population.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10290550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other provisions of the Charter have been ruled unconstitutional over the years, including those mandating French-only commercial signs, court proceedings, and debates in the legislature.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10290560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though none of these provisions are still in effect today, some continued to be on the books for a time even after courts had ruled them unconstitutional as a result of the government's decision to invoke the so-called [[Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]] of the Canadian constitution to override constitutional requirements.@@@@1@57@@danf@17-8-2009
10290570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1993, the Charter was rewritten to allow signage in other languages so long as French was markedly "predominant."@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10290580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another section of the Charter guarantees every person the right to work in French, meaning the right to have all communications with one's superiors and coworkers in French, as well as the right not to be required to know another language as a condition of hiring, unless this is warranted by the nature of one's duties, such as by reason of extensive interaction with people located outside the province or similar reasons.@@@@1@72@@danf@17-8-2009
10290590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This section has not been as effective as had originally been hoped, and has faded somewhat from public consciousness.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10290600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of 2006, approximately 65% of the workforce on the island of Montreal predominantly used French in the workplace.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10290610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The only other province that recognizes French as an official language is [[New Brunswick]], which is officially bilingual, like the nation as a whole.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10290620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Outside of [[Quebec]], the highest number of Francophones in Canada, 485,000, excluding those who claim multiple mother tongues, reside in [[Ontario]], whereas [[New Brunswick]], home to the vast majority of [[Acadians]], has the highest ''percentage'' of Francophones after [[Quebec]], 33%, or 237,000.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10290630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[Ontario]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Prince Edward Island]], and [[Manitoba]], French does not have full official status, although the provincial governments do provide some French-language services in all communities where significant numbers of Francophones live.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10290640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Canada's three northern territories ([[Yukon]], [[Northwest Territories]], and [[Nunavut]]) all recognize French as an official language as well.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10290650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All provinces make some effort to accommodate the needs of their Francophone [[citizen]]s, although the level and quality of French-language service vary significantly from province to province.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10290660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Ontario [[French Language Services Act]], adopted in 1986, guarantees French language services in that province in regions where the Francophone population exceeds 10% of the total population, as well as communities with Francophone populations exceeding 5,000, and certain other designated areas; this has the most effect in the north and east of the province, as well as in other larger centres such as [[Ottawa]], [[Toronto]], [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]], [[Mississauga, Ontario|Mississauga]], [[London, Ontario|London]], [[Kitchener, Ontario|Kitchener]], [[St. Catharines, Ontario|St. Catharines]], [[Greater Sudbury]] and [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]].@@@@1@83@@danf@17-8-2009
10290670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the French Language Services Act does not confer the status of "official bilingualism" on these cities, as that designation carries with it implications which go beyond the provision of services in both languages.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10290680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The City of Ottawa's language policy (by-law 2001-170) allows employees to work in their official language of choice and be supervised in the language of choice.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10290690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Canada has the status of member state in the Francophonie, while the provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick are recognized as participating governments.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10290700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ontario is currently seeking to become a full member on its own.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10290710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Haiti====@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is an official language of [[Haiti]], although it is mostly spoken by the [[upper class]], while [[Haitian Creole]] (a [[French-based creole language]]) is more widely spoken as a [[mother tongue]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10290730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====French overseas territories====@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10290740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also the official language in France's overseas territories of [[French Guiana]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Martinique]], [[Saint Barthélemy]], [[Saint Martin (France)|St. Martin]] and [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10290750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====The United States====@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10290760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although it has no official recognition on a federal level, French is the third most-spoken language in the United States, after [[English language|English]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and the second most-spoken in the states of [[Louisiana]], [[Maine]], [[Vermont]] and [[New Hampshire]].@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10290770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Louisiana is home to two distinct dialects, [[Cajun French]] and [[Louisiana Creole French|Creole French]]@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10290780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Africa===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A majority of the world's French-speaking population lives in Africa.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10290800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to the 2007 report by the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, an estimated 115 million African people spread across 31 francophone African countries can speak French either as a [[first language|first]] or [[second language]].@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10290810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is mostly a second language in Africa, but in some areas it has become a first language, such as in the region of [[Abidjan]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and in [[Libreville]], [[Gabon]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10290820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is impossible to speak of a single form of [[African French]], but rather of diverse forms of African French which have developed due to the contact with many indigenous [[African languages]].@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10290830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the territories of the [[Indian Ocean]], the French language is often spoken alongside French-derived creole languages, the major exception being [[Madagascar]].@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10290840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There, a Malayo-Polynesian language ([[Malagasy]]) is spoken alongside French.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10290850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French language has also met competition with English since English has been the official language in [[Mauritius]] and the [[Seychelles]] for a long time and has recently become an official language of Madagascar.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10290860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Sub-Saharan Africa]] is the region where the French language is most likely to expand due to the expansion of education and it is also there the language has evolved most in recent years.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10290870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries but written forms of the language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10290880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is an official language of many African countries, most of them former French or [[Belgian colonial empire|Belgian colonies]]:@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10290890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Benin]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Burkina Faso]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10290910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Burundi]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Cameroon]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Central African Republic]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10290940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Chad]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Comoros]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10290960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Congo (Brazzaville)]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10290970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Côte d'Ivoire]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10290980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10290990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Djibouti]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Equatorial Guinea]] (former colony of [[Spain]])@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10291010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Gabon]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Guinea]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Madagascar]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Mali]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Niger]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Rwanda]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Senegal]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Seychelles]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Togo]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, French is an administrative language and commonly used though not on an official basis in [[Mauritius]] and in the [[Maghreb]] states:@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10291110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:* [[Mauritania]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:* [[Algeria]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Morocco]]@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:*[[Tunisia]].@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various reforms have been implemented in recent decades in Algeria to improve the status of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] relative to French, especially in education.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10291160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the predominant European language in [[Egypt]] is [[English language|English]], French is considered to be a more sophisticated language by some elements of the Egyptian upper and upper-middle classes; for this reason, a typical educated Egyptian will learn French in addition to English at some point in his or her education.@@@@1@51@@danf@17-8-2009
10291170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The perception of sophistication may be related to the use of French as the [[Noble court|royal court]] language of Egypt during the nineteenth century.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10291180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Egypt participates in [[La Francophonie]].@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10291190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also the official language of [[Mayotte]] and [[Réunion]], two [[Overseas departments and territories of France|overseas territories]] of France located in the [[Indian Ocean]], as well as an administrative and educational language in [[Mauritius]], along with [[English language|English]].@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10291200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Asia===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Lebanon ====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French was the official language in [[Lebanon]] along with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] until 1941, the country's declaration of independence from [[France]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10291230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is still seen as an official language by the [[Lebanese people]] as it is widely used by the Lebanese, especially for administrative purposes, and is taught in schools as a primary language along with [[Arabic]].@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10291240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Southeast Asia====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is an administrative language in [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10291260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French was historically spoken by the elite in the leased territory [[Guangzhouwan]] in southern [[China]].@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10291270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In colonial [[Vietnam]], the elites spoke French and many who worked for the French spoke a French creole known as "[[Tây Bồi]]" (now extinct).@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10291280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====India====@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French has official status in the Indian [[Union Territory]] of [[Puducherry|Pondicherry]], along with the regional language [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and some students of Tamil Nadu may opt French as their third or fourth language (usually behind [[English language|English]], Tamil, [[Hindi]]).@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10291300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also commonly taught as third language in secondary school in most cities of [[Maharashtra]] State including [[Mumbai]] as part of the Secondary (X-SSC) and Higher secondary School (XII-HSC) certificate examinations.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10291310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Oceania===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is also a second official language of the [[Pacific Island]] nation of [[Vanuatu]], along with France's territories of [[French Polynesia]], [[Wallis & Futuna]] and [[New Caledonia]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10291330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Dialects==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Acadian French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[African French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Aostan French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Belgian French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Cajun French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Canadian French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Cambodian French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Guyana French (see [[French Guiana]])@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10291420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Indian French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Jersey Legal French]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10291440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Lao French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Levantine French]] (most commonly referred to as Lebanese French, very similar to [[Maghreb French]])@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10291460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Louisiana Creole French]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10291470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Maghreb French]] (see also North African French)@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10291480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Meridional French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Metropolitan France|Metropolitan French]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10291500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Caldoche|New Caledonian French]]@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10291510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Newfoundland French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*Oceanic French@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Quebec French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[South East Asian French]]@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10291550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Swiss French]]@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*[[Vietnamese French (dialect)|Vietnamese French]]@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10291570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*West Indian French@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10291580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Sounds==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@{{IPA notice}}@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10291610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although there are many French regional accents, only one version of the language is normally chosen as a model for foreign learners, which has no commonly used special name, but has been termed ''[[français neutre]]'' (neutral French).@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10291620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Voiced stops (i.e. {{IPA|/b d g/}}) are typically produced fully voiced throughout.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10291630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Voiceless stops (i.e. {{IPA|/p t k/}}) are unaspirated.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10291640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Nasals: The velar nasal {{IPA|/ŋ/}} occurs only in final position in borrowed (usually English) words: parking, camping, swing.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10291650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The palatal nasal {{IPA|/ɲ/}}can occur in word initial position (e.g. gnon), but it is most frequently found in intervocalic, onset position or word-finally (e.g. montagne).@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10291660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Fricatives: French has three pairs of homorganic fricatives distinguished by voicing, i.e. labiodental {{IPA|/f/–/v/}}, dental {{IPA|/s/–/z/}}, and palato-alveolar {{IPA|/ʃ/–/ʒ/}}.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10291670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Notice that {{IPA|/s/–/z/}} are dental, like the plosives {{IPA|/t/–/d/}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/n/}}.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10291680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* French has one rhotic whose pronunciation varies considerably among speakers and phonetic contexts.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10291690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general it is described as a voiced uvular fricative as in {{IPA|[ʁu]}} roue "wheel" .@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10291700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Vowels are often lengthened before this segment.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10291710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It can be reduced to an approximant, particularly in final position (e.g. "fort") or reduced to zero in some word-final positions.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10291720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For other speakers, a uvular trill is also fairly common, and an apical trill {{IPA|[r]}} occurs in some dialects.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10291730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Lateral and central approximants: The lateral approximant {{IPA|/l/}} is unvelarised in both onset (''lire'') and coda position (''il'').@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10291740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the onset, the central approximants {{IPA|[w]}}, {{IPA|[ɥ]}}, and {{IPA|[j]}} each correspond to a high vowel, {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|/y/}}, and {{IPA|/i/}} respectively.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10291750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are a few minimal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contrast, but there are also many cases where they are in free variation.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10291760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Contrasts between {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} occur in final position as in {{IPA|/pɛj/}} ''paye'' "pay" vs. {{IPA|/pɛi/}} ''pays'' "country".@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10291770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10291780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10291790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* final consonants: Final single consonants, in particular ''s'', ''x'', ''z'', ''t'', ''d'', ''n'' and ''m'', are normally silent.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10291800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The final letters ''c'', ''r'', ''f'' and ''l'', however, are normally pronounced.)@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10291810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**When the following word begins with a vowel, though, a silent consonant ''may'' once again be pronounced, to provide a ''[[liaison (linguistics)|liaison]]'' or "link" between the two words.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10291820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some liaisons are ''mandatory'', for example the ''s'' in ''les amants'' or ''vous avez''; some are ''optional'', depending on [[dialect]] and [[register (linguistics)|register]], for example the first ''s'' in ''deux cents euros'' or ''euros irlandais''; and some are ''forbidden'', for example the ''s'' in ''beaucoup d'hommes aiment''.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10291830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ''t'' of ''et'' is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in [[set phrase]]s like ''pied-à-terre''.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10291840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that in the case of a word ending ''d'' as in ''pied-à-terre'', the consonant ''t'' is pronounced instead.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10291850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@** Doubling a final ''n'' and adding a silent ''e'' at the end of a word (e.g. ''chien'' → ''chienne'') makes it clearly pronounced.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10291860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Doubling a final ''l'' and adding a silent ''e'' (e.g. ''gentil'' → ''gentille'') adds a [j] sound.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10291870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[elision (French)|elision]] or vowel dropping: Some monosyllabic function words ending in ''a'' or ''e'', such as ''je'' and ''que'', drop their final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound (thus avoiding a [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]]).@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10291880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g. ''je ai'' is instead pronounced and spelt → ''j'ai'').@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10291890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This gives for example the same pronunciation for ''l'homme qu'il a vu'' ("the man whom he saw") and ''l'homme qui l'a vu'' ("the man who saw him").@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10291900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Orthography==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10291910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Nasal vowel|Nasal]]: ''[[n]]'' and ''[[m]]''.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10291920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When ''n'' or ''m'' follows a vowel or diphthong, the ''n'' or ''m'' becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e. pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils).@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10291930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Exceptions are when the ''n'' or ''m'' is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10291940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The prefixes ''en-'' and ''em-'' are always nasalized.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10291950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The rules get more complex than this but may vary between dialects.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10291960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[digraph (orthography)|Digraphs]]: French does not introduce extra letters or [[diacritic]]s to specify its large range of vowel sounds and [[diphthongs]], rather it uses specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10291970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Consonant length|Gemination]]: Within words, double consonants are generally not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but geminates can be heard in the cinema or TV news from as recently as the 1970s, and in very refined elocution they may still occur).@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10291980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ''illusion'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ilyzjɔ̃]}} and not {{IPA|[illyzjɔ̃]}}.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10291990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@But gemination does occur between words.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10292000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ''une info'' ("a news") is pronounced {{IPA|[ynɛ̃fo]}}, whereas ''une nympho'' ("a nympho") is pronounced {{IPA|[ynnɛ̃fo]}}.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10292010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Diacritic|Accents]] are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes for etymology alone.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10292020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Accents that affect pronunciation@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10292030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@***The [[acute accent]] (''l'accent aigu''), ''é'' (e.g. ''école''—school), means that the vowel is pronounced {{IPA|/e/}} instead of the default {{IPA|/ə/}}.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10292040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@***The [[grave accent]] (''l'accent grave''), ''è'' (e.g. ''élève''—pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}} instead of the default {{IPA|/ə/}}.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10292050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@***The [[circumflex]] (''l'accent circonflexe'') ''ê'' (e.g. ''forêt''—forest) shows that an ''e'' is pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and that an ''o'' is pronounced {{IPA|/o/}}.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10292060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In standard French it also signifies a pronunciation of {{IPA|/ɑ/}} for the letter ''a'', but this differentiation is disappearing.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10292070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the late 19th century, the circumflex was used in place of ''s'' where that letter was not to be pronounced.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10292080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, ''forest'' became ''forêt'' and ''hospital'' became'' hôpital''.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10292090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@***The [[Umlaut (diacritic)|diaeresis]] (''le tréma'') (e.g. ''naïf''—foolish, ''Noël''—Christmas) as in English, specifies that this vowel is pronounced separately from the preceding one, not combined and is not a [[schwa]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10292100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@***The [[cedilla]] (''la cédille'') ''ç'' (e.g. ''garçon''—boy) means that the letter ''c'' is pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} in front of the hard vowels ''a'', ''o'' and ''u'' (''c'' is otherwise {{IPA|/k/}} before a hard vowel).@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10292110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@''C'' is always pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} in front of the soft vowels ''e'', ''i'', and ''y'', thus ''ç'' is never found in front of soft vowels.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10292120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@**Accents with no pronunciation effect@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10292130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@***The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters ''i'' or ''u'', and in most dialects, ''a'' as well.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10292140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It usually indicates that an ''s'' came after it long ago, as in ''hôtel''.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10292150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@***All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs ''là'' and ''où'' ("there", "where") from the article ''la'' and the conjunction ''ou'' ("the" fem. sing., "or") respectively.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10292160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Grammar==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10292170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including:@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10292180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* the loss of Latin's [[declension]]s@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10292190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* only two [[grammatical gender]]s@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10292200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* the development of grammatical [[article (grammar)|article]]s from Latin [[demonstrative]]s@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10292210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* new [[tense]]s formed from auxiliaries@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10292220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French word order is [[Subject Verb Object]], except when the object is a pronoun, in which case the word order is [[Subject Object Verb]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10292230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some rare archaisms allow for different word orders.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10292240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Vocabulary==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10292250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The majority of French words derive from [[Vulgar Latin]] or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10292260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are often pairs of words, one form being "popular" (noun) and the other one "savant" (adjective), both originating from Latin.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10292270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Example:@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10292280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* brother: ''frère'' / ''fraternel'' < from Latin ''frater''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10292290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* finger: ''doigt'' / ''digital'' < from Latin ''digitus''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10292300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* faith: ''foi'' / ''fidèle'' < from Latin ''fides''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10292310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* cold: ''froid'' / ''frigide'' < from Latin ''frigidus''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10292320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* eye: ''œil'' / ''oculaire'' < from Latin ''oculus''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10292330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some examples there is a common word from Vulgar Latin and a more savant word borrowed directly from [[Medieval Latin]] or even [[Ancient Greek]].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10292340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''Cheval'''—Concours '''équestre'''—'''Hippo'''drome@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10292350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French words which have developed from Latin are usually less recognisable than [[Italian language|Italian]] words of Latin origin because as French evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]], the unstressed final [[syllable]] of many words was dropped or elided into the following word.@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10292360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is estimated that 12% (4,200) of common French words found in a typical [[dictionary]] such as the ''Petit Larousse'' or ''Micro-Robert Plus'' (35,000 words) are of foreign origin.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10292370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@About 25% (1,054) of these foreign words come from [[English language|English]] and are fairly recent borrowings.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10292380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The others are some 707 words from [[Italian language|Italian]], 550 from ancient [[Germanic languages]], 481 from ancient [[Gallo-Romance languages]], 215 from [[Arabic language|Arabic]], 164 from [[German language|German]], 160 from [[Celtic languages]], 159 from [[Spanish language|Spanish]], 153 from [[Dutch language|Dutch]], 112 from [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]], 101 from [[Native American languages]], 89 from other [[Asian languages]], 56 from other [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], 55 from [[Slavic languages]] and [[Baltic languages]], 10 for [[Basque language|Basque]] and 144 — about three percent — from other languages.@@@@1@82@@danf@17-8-2009
10292390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Numerals===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10292400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French counting system is partially [[vigesimal]]: [[20 (number)|twenty]] (''{{lang|fr|vingt}}'') is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 60–99.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10292410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French word for ''eighty'', for example, is ''{{lang|fr|quatre-vingts}}'', which literally means "four twenties", and ''{{lang|fr|soixante-quinze}}'' (literally "sixty-fifteen") means 75.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10292420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This reform arose after the [[French Revolution]] to unify the different counting system (mostly vigesimal near the coast, due to Celtic (via [[Basque language|Basque]]) and Viking influence).@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10292430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This system is comparable to the archaic English use of ''score'', as in "fourscore and seven" (87), or "threescore and ten" (70).@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10292440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Belgian French]] and [[Swiss French]] are different in this respect.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10292450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Belgium and Switzerland 70 and 90 are ''{{lang|fr|septante}}'' and ''{{lang|fr|nonante}}''.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10292460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Switzerland, depending on the local dialect, 80 can be ''{{lang|fr|quatre-vingts}}'' (Geneva, Neuchâtel, Jura) or ''{{lang|fr|huitante}}'' (Vaud, Valais, Fribourg).@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10292470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@''Octante'' had been used in Switzerland in the past, but is now considered archaic.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10292480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Belgium, however, ''quatre-vingts'' is universally used.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10292490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Writing system==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10292500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French is written using the 26 letters of the [[Latin alphabet]], plus five diacritics (the [[circumflex]] accent, [[acute accent]], [[grave accent]], [[Umlaut (diacritic)|diaeresis]], and [[cedilla]]) and the two [[Ligature (typography)|ligatures]] (œ) and (æ).@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10292510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10292520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10292530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Moreover, some conscious changes were made to restore Latin orthography:@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10292540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Old French ''doit'' > French ''doigt'' "finger" (Latin ''digitus'')@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10292550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* Old French ''pie'' > French ''pied'' "foot" (Latin ''pes'' (stem: ''ped-'')@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10292560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result, it is difficult to predict the spelling on the basis of the sound alone.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10292570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10292580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, all of these words end in a vowel sound: ''pied'', ''aller'', ''les'', ''finit'', ''beaux''.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10292590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples: ''beaux-arts'', ''les amis'', ''pied-à-terre''.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10292600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, a given spelling will almost always lead to a predictable sound, and the [[Académie française]] works hard to enforce and update this correspondence.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10292610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic predictably leads to one phoneme.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10292620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The diacritics have '''phonetic''', '''semantic''', and '''etymological''' significance.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10292630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[acute accent]] (''é''): Over an ''e'', indicates the sound of a short ''ai'' in English, with no [[diphthong]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10292640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An ''é'' in modern French is often used where a combination of ''e'' and a consonant, usually ''s,'' would have been used formerly: ''écouter'' < ''escouter''.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10292650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This type of accent mark is called ''accent aigu'' in French.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10292660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[grave accent]] (''à'', ''è'', ''ù''): Over ''a'' or ''u'', used only to distinguish homophones: ''à'' ("to") vs. ''a'' ("has"), ''ou'' ("or") vs. ''où'' ("where").@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10292670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over an ''e'', indicates the sound {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10292680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[circumflex]] (''â'', ''ê'', ''î'', ''ô'', ''û''): Over an ''a'', ''e'' or ''o'', indicates the sound {{IPA|/ɑ/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} or {{IPA|/o/}}, respectively (the distinction ''a'' {{IPA|/a/}} vs. ''â'' {{IPA|/ɑ/}} tends to disappear in many dialects).@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10292690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most often indicates the historical deletion of an adjacent letter (usually an ''s'' or a vowel): ''château'' < ''castel'', ''fête'' < ''feste'', ''sûr'' < ''seur'', ''dîner'' < ''disner''.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10292700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has also come to be used to distinguish homophones: ''du'' ("of the") vs. ''dû'' (past participle of ''devoir'' "to have to do something (pertaining to an act)"; note that ''dû'' is in fact written thus because of a dropped ''e'': ''deu'').@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10292710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(''See [[Use of the circumflex in French]]'')@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10292720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[Umlaut (diacritic)|diaeresis]] or ''tréma'' (''ë'', ''ï'', ''ü'', ''ÿ''): Indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: ''naïve'', ''Noël''.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10292730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A diaeresis on ''y'' only occurs in some proper names and in modern editions of old French texts.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10292740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some proper names in which ''ÿ'' appears include ''Aÿ'' (commune in ''canton de la Marne'' formerly ''Aÿ-Champagne''), ''Rue des Cloÿs'' (alley in the 18th arrondisement of Paris), ''Croÿ'' (family name and hotel on the Boulevard Raspail, Paris), ''[[Château du Feÿ]]'' (near Joigny), ''Ghÿs'' (name of Flemish origin spelt ''Ghijs'' where ''ij'' in handwriting looked like ''ÿ'' to French clerks), ''l'Haÿ-les-Roses'' (commune between Paris and Orly airport), Pierre Louÿs (author), Moÿ (place in ''commune de l'Aisne'' and family name), and ''Le Blanc de Nicolaÿ'' (an insurance company in eastern France).@@@@1@89@@danf@17-8-2009
10292750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The diaresis on ''u'' appears only in the biblical proper names ''Archélaüs'', ''Capharnaüm'', ''Emmaüs'', ''Ésaü'' and ''Saül''.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10292760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nevertheless, since the 1990 orthographic rectifications (which are not applied at all by most French people), the diaeresis in words containing ''guë'' (such as ''aiguë'' or ''ciguë'') may be moved onto the ''u'': ''aigüe'', ''cigüe''.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10292770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Words coming from German retain the old Umlaut (''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'') if applicable but use French pronunciation, such as ''kärcher'' (trade mark of a pressure washer).@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10292780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* [[cedilla]] (''ç''): Indicates that an etymological ''c'' is pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} when it would otherwise be pronounced /k/.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10292790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus ''je lance'' "I throw" (with ''c'' = {{IPA|[s]}} before ''e''), ''je lan'''ç'''ais'' "I was throwing" (''c'' would be pronounced {{IPA|[k]}} before ''a'' without the cedilla).@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10292800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The c cedilla (ç) softens the hard /k/ sound to /s/ before the vowels '''a''', '''o''' or '''u''', for example '''ça''' /sa/.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10292810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@C cedilla is never used before the vowels '''e''' or '''i''' since these two vowels always produce a soft /s/ sound ('''ce''', '''ci''').@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10292820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are two [[ligatures]], which have various origins.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10292830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* The ligature ''[[œ]]'' is a mandatory contraction of ''oe'' in certain words.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10292840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of these are native French words, with the pronunciation {{IPA|/œ/}} or {{IPA|/ø/}}, e.g. ''sœur'' "sister" {{IPA|/sœʁ/}}, ''œuvre'' "work (of art)" {{IPA|/œvʁ/}}.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10292850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that it usually appears in the combination ''œu''; ''œil'' is an exception.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10292860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of these words were originally written with the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''eu''; the ''o'' in the ligature represents a sometimes artificial attempt to imitate the Latin spelling: Latin ''bovem'' > Old French ''buef''/''beuf'' > Modern French ''bœuf''. ''Œ'' is also used in words of Greek origin, as the Latin rendering of the Greek diphthong ''οι'', e.g. ''cœlacanthe'' "coelacanth".@@@@1@58@@danf@17-8-2009
10292870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These words used to be pronounced with the vowel {{IPA|/e/}}, but in recent years a spelling pronunciation with {{IPA|/ø/}} has taken hold, e.g. ''œsophage'' {{IPA|/ezɔfaʒ/}} or {{IPA|/øzɔfaʒ/}}.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10292880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The pronunciation with {{IPA|/e/}} is often seen to be more correct.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10292890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ligature œ is not used in some occurrences of the letter combination ''oe'', for example, when ''o'' is part of a prefix (''coexister'').@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10292900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* The ligature ''[[æ]]'' is rare and appears in some words of Latin and Greek origin like ''ægosome'', ''ægyrine'', ''æschne'', ''cæcum'', ''nævus'' or ''uræus''.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10292910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vowel quality is identical to é {{IPA|/e/}}.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10292920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@French writing, as with any language, is affected by the spoken language.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10292930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Old French, the plural for ''animal'' was ''animals''.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10292940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Common speakers pronounced a ''u'' before a word ending in ''l'' as the plural.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10292950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This resulted in ''animauls''.@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10292960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As the French language evolved this vanished and the form ''animaux'' (''aux'' pronounced {{IPA|/o/}}) was admitted.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10292970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same is true for ''cheval'' pluralized as ''chevaux'' and many others.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10292980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also ''castel'' pl. ''castels'' became ''château'' pl. ''châteaux''.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10292990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Samples==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10300010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>German language</article>@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10300020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The '''German language''' ({{lang|de|''Deutsch''}}) is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] and one of the world's [[world language|major languages]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10300030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is closely related to and classified alongside [[English language|English]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10300040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Around the world, German is spoken by approximately 100 million [[First language|native speakers]] and also about 80 million non-native speakers, and [[Standard German]] is widely taught in schools, universities, and [[Goethe Institute]]s worldwide.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10300050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Geographic distribution==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10300060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Europe===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10300070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is spoken primarily in [[Languages of Germany|Germany]] (95%), [[Languages of Austria|Austria]] (89%) and [[Linguistic geography of Switzerland|Switzerland]] (64%) together with [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]] ([[D-A-CH-Li-Lux]]) constituting the countries where German is the majority language.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10300080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other European German-speaking communities are found in [[Italy]] ([[Province of Bolzano-Bozen|Bolzano-Bozen]]), in the [[German speaking community in Belgium|East Cantons]] of [[Belgium]], in the [[France|french]] area [[Alsace]] which often was traded between Germany and France in history and in some border villages of the former [[South Jutland County]] (in German, ''Nordschleswig'', in Danish, ''Sønderjylland'') of [[Denmark]].@@@@1@55@@danf@17-8-2009
10300090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some German-speaking communities still survive in parts of [[Romania]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]], and above all [[Russia]] and [[Kazakhstan]], although forced expulsions after World War II and massive emigration to Germany in the 1980s and 1990s have depopulated most of these communities.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10300100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is also spoken by German-speaking foreign populations and some of their descendants in [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], Italy, [[Morocco]], [[Egypt]], [[Israel]], [[Cyprus]], [[Turkey]], [[Greece]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Netherlands]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Siberia]] in Russia, Hungary, Romania, [[Bulgaria]], and the former [[Yugoslavia]] ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Serbia]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovenia]]).@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10300110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Luxembourg and the surrounding areas, big parts of the native population speak German dialects, and some people also master standard German (especially in Luxembourg), although in the [[France|French]] regions of [[Alsace]] (German: ''Elsass'') and [[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]] (German: ''Lothringen'') [[French language|French]] has replaced the local German dialects as the official language, even though it has not been fully replaced on the street.@@@@1@62@@danf@17-8-2009
10300120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Overseas===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10300130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Outside of Europe and the former [[Soviet Union]], the largest German-speaking communities are to be found in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Brazil]] and in [[Argentina]] where millions of Germans migrated in the last 200 years; but the vast majority of their descendants no longer speak German.@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10300140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, German-speaking communities can be found in the former [[List of former German colonies|German colony]] of [[Namibia]] independent from [[South Africa]] since 1990, as well as in the other countries of German emigration such as [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]], [[Chile]], [[Peru]], [[Venezuela]] (where [[Alemán Coloniero]] developed), South Africa and [[Australia]].@@@@1@52@@danf@17-8-2009
10300150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====South America====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10300160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Brazil the largest concentrations of German speakers are in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] (where [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] was developed), [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]], and [[Espírito Santo]], and large German-speaking descendant communities in Argentina, Uruguay and Chile.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10300170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 20th century, over 100,000 German [[Refugee|political refugees]] and invited entrepreneurs settled in [[Latin America]], such as [[Costa Rica]], [[Panama]], Venezuela and the Dominican Republic to establish German-speaking enclaves, and there is a reportedly small [[German immigration to Puerto Rico]].@@@@1@41@@danf@17-8-2009
10300180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====North America====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10300190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The United States has the largest concentration of German speakers outside of Europe; an indication of this presence can be found in the names of such villages and towns as [[New Leipzig, North Dakota|New Leipzig]], [[Munich, North Dakota|Munich]], [[Karlsruhe, North Dakota|Karlsruhe]], and [[Strasburg, North Dakota|Strasburg]], [[North Dakota]], and [[New Braunfels]], Texas.@@@@1@51@@danf@17-8-2009
10300200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though over the course of the 20th century many of the descendants of 18th and 19th-century immigrants ceased speaking German at home, small populations of elderly (as well as some younger) speakers can be found in [[Pennsylvania]] ([[Amish]], [[Hutterites]], [[Dunkards]] and some [[Mennonites]] historically spoke [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania Dutch]] (a [[West Central German]] variety) and [[Hutterite German]]), [[Kansas]] (Mennonites and [[Volga German]]s), North Dakota (Hutterite Germans, Mennonites, [[History of Germans in Russia and the Soviet Union|Russian German]]s, Volga Germans, and [[Baltic Germans]]), [[South Dakota]], [[Montana]], [[Texas]] ([[Texas German]]), [[Wisconsin]], [[Indiana]], [[Louisiana]] and [[Oklahoma]].@@@@1@93@@danf@17-8-2009
10300210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Early twentieth century immigration was often to [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], [[Chicago]], [[New York]], [[Pittsburgh]] and [[Cincinnati]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10300220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the post–[[World War II]] wave are in the New York, [[Philadelphia]], [[Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco]] and Chicago [[urban area]]s, and in [[Florida]], [[Arizona]] and [[California]] where large communities of retired German, Swiss and Austrian expatriates live.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10300230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[German Americans|American population of German ancestry]] is above 60 million.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10300240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The German language is the third largest language in the U.S. after [[Spanish language|Spanish]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10300250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Canada there are people of German ancestry throughout the country and especially in the western cities such as [[Kelowna]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10300260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is also spoken in [[Ontario]] and southern [[Nova Scotia]].@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10300270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is a large and vibrant community in the city of [[Kitchener, Ontario]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10300280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German immigrants were instrumental in the country's three largest urban areas: [[Montreal]], [[Toronto]] and [[Vancouver]], but post-WWII immigrants managed to preserve a fluency in the German language in their respective neighborhoods and sections.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10300290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the first half of the 20th century, over a million [[German-Canadian]]s made the language one of Canada's most spoken after [[French language|French]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10300300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Mexico there are also large populations of German ancestry, mainly in the cities of: [[Mexico City]], [[Puebla]], [[Mazatlán]], [[Tapachula]], and larger populations scattered in the states of [[Chihuahua]], [[Durango]], and [[Zacatecas]].@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10300310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German ancestry is also said to be found in neighboring towns around [[Guadalajara, Jalisco]] and much of Northern Mexico, where German influence was immersed into the Mexican culture.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10300320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German is spoken by the affluent German communities in Puebla, Mexico City, [[Nuevo Leon]], [[San Luis Potosi]] and [[Quintana Roo]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10300330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German immigration in the twentieth century was small, but produced German-speaking communities in Central America (i.e.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10300340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]] and [[Nicaragua]]) and the Caribbean Islands like the [[Dominican Republic]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10300350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@'''Dialects in North America:'''@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10300360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in colonies or communities founded by German speaking people resemble the dialects of the regions the founders came from.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10300370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, Pennsylvania German resembles dialects of the [[Rhenish Palatinate|Palatinate]], and Hutterite German resembles dialects of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10300380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Texas German]] is a dialect spoken in the areas of Texas settled by the [[Adelsverein]], such as New Braunfels and Fredericksburg.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10300390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the [[Amana Colonies]] in the state of Iowa [[Amana German]] is spoken.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10300400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Plautdietsch]] is a large [[minority language]] spoken in Northern Mexico by the [[Mennonite]] communities, and is spoken by more than 200,000 people in Mexico.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10300410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Hutterite German]] is an Upper German dialect of the [[Austro-Bavarian]] variety of the German language, which is spoken by Hutterite communities in Canada and the United States.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10300420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hutterite is spoken in the U.S. states of [[Washington]], Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota, and [[Minnesota]]; and in the Canadian provinces of [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]] and [[Manitoba]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10300430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its speakers belong to some Schmiedleit, Lehrerleit, and Dariusleit Hutterite groups, but there are also speakers among the older generations of Prairieleit (the descendants of those Hutterites who chose not to settle in colonies).@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10300440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hutterite children who grow up in the colonies learn and speak first Hutterite German before learning English in the public school, the standard language of the surrounding areas.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10300450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many colonies though continue with German Grammar School, separate from the public school, throughout a student's elementary education.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10300460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Creoles====@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10300470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is an important German creole being studied and recovered, named [[Unserdeutsch]], spoken in the former German colony of [[Papua New Guinea]], across [[Micronesia]] and in northern Australia (i.e. coastal parts of [[Queensland]] and [[Western Australia]]), by few elderly people.@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10300480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The risk of its extinction is serious and efforts to revive interest in the language are being implemented by scholars.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10300490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Internet====@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10300500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to [[Global Reach]] (2004), 6.9% of the Internet population is German.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10300510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to [[Netz-tipp]] (2002), 7.7% of webpages are written in German, making it second only to English in the European language group.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10300520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They also report that 12% of Google's users use its German interface.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10300530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Older statistics: Babel (1998) found somewhat similar demographics.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10300540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@FUNREDES (1998) and Vilaweb (2000) both found that German is the third most popular language used by websites, after English and Japanese.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10300550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10300560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The history of the language begins with the [[High German consonant shift]] during the [[migration period]], separating [[High German]] dialects from common [[West Germanic]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10300570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The earliest testimonies of [[Old High German]] are from scattered [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions, especially in [[Alemannic]], from the 6th century, the earliest glosses (''[[Abrogans]]'') date to the 8th and the oldest coherent texts (the ''[[Hildebrandslied]]'', the ''[[Muspilli]]'' and the [[Merseburg Incantations]]) to the 9th century.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10300580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Old Saxon]] at this time belongs to the [[Ingvaeonic|North Sea Germanic]] cultural sphere, and [[Low Saxon]] should fall under German rather than [[Anglo-Frisian]] influence during the [[Holy Roman Empire]].@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10300590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As Germany was divided into many different [[state]]s, the only force working for a unification or [[standard language|standardization]] of German during a period of several hundred years was the general preference of writers trying to write in a way that could be understood in the largest possible area.@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10300600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When [[Martin Luther]] translated the [[Bible]] (the [[New Testament]] in 1522 and the [[Old Testament]], published in parts and completed in 1534) he based his translation mainly on the bureaucratic standard language used in Saxony (''sächsische Kanzleisprache'') also known as ''Meißner-Deutsch'' (Meißner-German), which was the most widely understood language at this time, because the region it was spoken in was quite influential amongst the German states.@@@@1@66@@danf@17-8-2009
10300610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This language was based on Eastern Upper and Eastern Central German dialects and preserved much of the grammatical system of Middle High German (unlike the spoken German dialects in Central and Upper Germany that already at that time began to lose the [[genitive case]] and the preterite tense).@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10300620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the beginning, copies of the Bible had a long list for each region, which translated words unknown in the region into the regional dialect.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10300630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Roman Catholics]] rejected Luther's translation in the beginning and tried to create their own Catholic standard (''gemeines Deutsch'') — which, however, only differed from 'Protestant German' in some minor details.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10300640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It took until the middle of the 18th century to create a standard that was widely accepted, thus ending the period of [[Early New High German]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10300650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1901 the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a complete standardization of German language in written form while the ''Deutsche Bühnensprache'' (literally: ''German stage-language'') had already established spelling-rules for German three years earlier which were later to become obligatory for general German pronunciation.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10300660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German used to be the language of commerce and government in the [[Habsburg Empire]], which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10300670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until the mid-19th century it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10300680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It indicated that the speaker was a [[merchant]], an urbanite, not their nationality.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10300690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some cities, such as [[Prague]] (German: ''Prag'') and [[Budapest]] ([[Buda]], German: ''Ofen''), were gradually [[Germanization|Germanized]] in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10300700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others, such as [[Bratislava]](German: ''Pressburg''), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10300710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A few cities such as [[Milan]] (German: ''Mailand'') remained primarily non-German.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10300720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, most cities were primarily German during this time, such as Prague, Budapest, Bratislava (German: ''Pressburg''), [[Zagreb]] (German: ''Agram''), and [[Ljubljana]] (German: ''Laibach''), though they were surrounded by territory that spoke other languages.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10300730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until about 1800, standard German was almost only a written language.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10300740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At this time, people in urban [[northern Germany]], who spoke dialects very different from Standard German, learned it almost like a foreign language and tried to pronounce it as close to the spelling as possible.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10300750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Prescriptive pronunciation guides used to consider northern [[German phonology|German pronunciation]] to be the standard.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10300760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the actual pronunciation of standard German varies from region to region.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10300770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Media and written works are almost all produced in standard German (often called ''Hochdeutsch'' in German) which is understood in all areas where German is spoken, except by [[Nursery school|pre-school]] children in areas which speak only dialect, for example [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]].@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10300780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, in this age of television, even they now usually learn to understand Standard German before school age.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10300790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first dictionary of the [[Brothers Grimm]], the 16 parts of which were issued between 1852 and 1860, remains the most comprehensive guide to the words of the German language.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10300800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1860, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the ''[[Duden Handbook]]''.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10300810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1901, this was declared the standard definition of the German language.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10300820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Official revisions of some of these rules were not issued until 1998, when the [[German spelling reform of 1996]] was officially promulgated by governmental representatives of all German-speaking countries.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10300830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since the reform, German spelling has been in an eight-year transitional period where the reformed spelling is taught in most schools, while traditional and reformed spellings co-exist in the media.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10300840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See [[German spelling reform of 1996]] for an overview of the public debate concerning the reform with some major newspapers and magazines and several known writers refusing to adopt it.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10300850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The German spelling reform of 1996 led to public controversy indeed to considerable dispute.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10300860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some state parliaments (Bundesländer) would not accept it ([[North Rhine-Westphalia|North Rhine Westphalia]] and Bavaria).@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10300870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dispute landed at one point in the highest court which made a short issue of it, claiming that the states had to decide for themselves and that only in schools could the reform be made the official rule - everybody else could continue writing as they had learned it.@@@@1@50@@danf@17-8-2009
10300880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After 10 years, without any intervention by the federal parliament, a major yet incomplete revision was installed in 2006, just in time for the new school year of 2006.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10300890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007, some venerable spellings will be finally invalidated even though they caused little or no trouble.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10300900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The only sure and easily recognizable symptom of a text's being in compliance with the reform is the -ss at the end of words, like in ''dass'' and ''muss''.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10300910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Classic spelling forbade this ending, instead using ''daß'' and ''muß''.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10300920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The cause of the controversy evolved around the question whether a language is part of the culture which must be preserved or a means of communicating information which has to allow for growth.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10300930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The reformers seemed to be unimpressed by the fact that a considerable part of that culture - namely the entire German literature of the 20th century - is in the old spelling.)@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10300940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The increasing use of English in Germany's higher education system, as well as in business and in popular culture, has led various German academics to state, not necessarily from an entirely negative perspective, that German is a language in decline in its native country.@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10300950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, Ursula Kimpel, of the [[University of Tübingen]], said in 2005 that “German universities are offering more courses in English because of the large number of students coming from abroad.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10300960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is unfortunately a language in decline.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10300970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We need and want our professors to be able to teach effectively in English.”@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10300980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Standard German==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10300990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region, but as a [[written language]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10301000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by standard German; this is the case in vast stretches of Northern Germany, but also in major cities in other parts of the country.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10301010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German differs regionally, between German-speaking countries, in [[vocabulary]] and some instances of [[pronunciation]], and even [[grammar]] and [[orthography]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10301020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This variation must not be confused with the variation of local dialects.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10301030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even though the regional varieties of standard German are only to a certain degree influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10301040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is thus considered a pluricentric language.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10301050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties according to situation.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10301060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, mixtures of dialect and standard are very seldom used, and the use of standard German is largely restricted to the written language.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10301070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, this situation has been called a ''medial [[diglossia]]''.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10301080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Swiss Standard German]] is used in the Swiss education system.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10301090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Official status===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10301100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German is the only [[official language]] in Liechtenstein and Austria; it shares official status in [[Germany]] (with [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Frisian languages|Frisian]] and [[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]] as minority languages), Switzerland (with [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]), Belgium (with [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and French) and Luxembourg (with French and [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]]).@@@@1@50@@danf@17-8-2009
10301110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is used as a local official language in Italy ([[Province of Bolzano-Bozen]]), as well as in the cities of [[Sopron]] (Hungary), Krahule ([[Slovakia]]) and several cities in Romania.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10301120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the official language (with Italian) of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] [[Swiss Guard]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10301130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German has an officially recognized status as regional or auxiliary language in Denmark ([[South Jutland]] region), France (Alsace and [[Moselle]] regions), Italy (Gressoney valley), Namibia, [[Poland]] ([[Bilingual communes in Poland|Opole]] region), and Russia (Asowo and Halbstadt).@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10301140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is one of the 23 official [[languages of the European Union]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10301150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the language with the largest number of native speakers in the [[European Union]], and, shortly after English and long before French, the second-most spoken language in Europe.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10301160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===German as a foreign language===@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10301170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is the third most taught [[foreign language]] in the English speaking world after French and Spanish.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10301180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is the main language of about 90–95 million people in Europe (as of 2004), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the second most spoken native language in Europe after [[Russian language|Russian]], above French (66.5 million speakers in 2004) and English (64.2 million speakers in 2004).@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10301190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is therefore the most spoken first language in the EU.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10301200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the second most known foreign language in the EU.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10301210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is one of the official languages of the European Union, and one of the three [[working language]]s of [[European Commission|the European Commission]], along with English and French.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10301220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thirty-two percent of citizens of the EU-15 countries say they can converse in German (either as a mother tongue or as a second or foreign language).@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10301230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is assisted by the widespread availability of German TV by cable or satellite.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10301240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German was once, and still remains to some extent, a [[lingua franca]] in Central, Eastern and [[Northern Europe]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10301250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Dialects==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10301260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is a member of the [[West Germanic language|western branch]] of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] [[Language family|family of languages]], which in turn is part of the [[Indo-European language family]].@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10301270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The German dialect continuum is traditionally divided most broadly into [[High German languages|High German]] and Low German.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10301280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The variation among the German dialects is considerable, with only the neighbouring dialects being mutually intelligible.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10301290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some dialects are not intelligible to people who only know standard German.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10301300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, all German dialects belong to the dialect continuum of High German and Low Saxon languages.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10301310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until roughly the end of the Second World War, there was a dialect continuum of all the continental West Germanic languages because nearly any pair of neighbouring dialects were perfectly mutually intelligible.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10301320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Low German ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10301330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Low Saxon varieties (spoken on German territory) are considered linguistically a language separate from the German language by some, but just a dialect by others.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10301340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sometimes, Low Saxon and [[Low Franconian]] are grouped together because both are unaffected by the High German consonant shift.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10301350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the part of the population capable of speaking and responding to it, or of understanding it has decreased continuously since WWII.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10301360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Currently the effort to maintain a residual presence in cultural life is negligible.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10301370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Middle Low German]] was the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Hanseatic League]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10301380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was the predominant language in Northern Germany.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10301390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This changed in the 16th century.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10301400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1534 the [[Luther Bible]] by Martin Luther was printed.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10301410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This translation is considered to be an important step towards the evolution of the Early New High German.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10301420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It aimed to be understandable to an ample audience and was based mainly on Central and [[Upper German]] varieties.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10301430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Early New High German language gained more prestige than Low Saxon and became the language of science and literature.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10301440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other factors were that around the same time, the Hanseatic league lost its importance as new trade routes to [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]] were established, and that the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10301450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass [[education]], the language of the schools being standard German.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10301460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Slowly Low Saxon was pushed back and back until it was nothing but a language spoken by the uneducated and at home.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10301470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Today Low Saxon can be divided in two groups: Low Saxon varieties with a reasonable standard German influx and varieties of Standard German with a Low Saxon influence known as [[Missingsch]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10301480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== High German ===@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10301490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@High German is divided into [[Central German]] and [[Upper German language|Upper German]].@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10301500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Central German dialects include [[Ripuarian]], [[Moselle Franconian]], [[Hessian language|Hessian]], [[Thuringian]], [[South Franconian]], [[Lorraine Franconian]] and [[Upper Saxon dialect|Upper Saxon]].@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10301510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of France, and in Germany approximately between the River [[Main]] and the southern edge of the Lowlands.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10301520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German, but it should be noted that the common (but not linguistically correct) German term for modern Standard German is ''Hochdeutsch'', that is, ''High German''.@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10301530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in Luxembourg have been officially standardised and institutionalised and are therefore usually considered a separate language known as [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10301540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Upper German dialects include [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] (for instance [[Swiss German (linguistics)|Swiss German]]), [[Swabian German|Swabian]], [[East Franconian German|East Franconian]], [[Alsatian]] and [[Austro-Bavarian]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10301550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They are spoken in parts of the Alsace, southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and in the German-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10301560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Wymysorys]], [[Sathmarisch]] and [[Siebenbürgisch]] are High German dialects of Poland and Romania respectively.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10301570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The High German varieties spoken by [[Ashkenazi Jew]]s (mostly in the former [[Soviet Union]]) have several unique features, and are usually considered as a separate language, [[Yiddish]].@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10301580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is the only Germanic language that does not use the [[Latin alphabet]] as its [[official script|standard script]].@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10301590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===German dialects versus varieties of standard German===@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10301600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In German [[linguistics]], German [[dialect]]s are distinguished from [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of [[standard German]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10301610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*The ''German dialects'' are the traditional local varieties.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10301620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They are traditionally traced back to the different German tribes.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10301630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of them are hardly understandable to someone who knows only standard German, since they often differ from standard German in [[lexicon]], [[phonology]] and [[syntax]].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10301640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If a narrow definition of [[language]] based on [[mutual intelligibility]] is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages (for instance in the [[Ethnologue]]).@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10301650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, such a point of view is unusual in German linguistics.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10301660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@*The ''varieties of standard German'' refer to the different local varieties of the [[pluricentric language|pluricentric]] standard German.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10301670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They only differ slightly in lexicon and phonology.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10301680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially in Northern Germany.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10301690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Grammar==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10301700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is an [[Fusional language|inflected language]].@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10301710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Noun inflection===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10301720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[German nouns]] inflect into:@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10301730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* one of four [[Grammatical case|case]]s: [[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[dative case|dative]], and [[accusative case|accusative]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10301740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* one of three [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, or neuter.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10301750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Word endings sometimes reveal grammatical gender; for instance, nouns ending in '''...ung'''([[-ing]]), '''...e''','''...schaft'''([[-ship]]), '''...keit''' or '''...heit'''([[-hood]]) are feminine, while nouns ending in '''...chen''' or '''...lein''' ([[diminutive]] forms) are neuter and nouns ending in '''...ismus ([[-ism]])''' are masculine.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10301760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others are controversial, sometimes depending on the region in which it is spoken.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10301770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, ambiguous endings exist, such as '''...er''' ([[-er]]), e.g. ''Feier (feminine)'', engl. ''celebration, party'', and ''Arbeiter (masculine)'', engl. ''labourer''.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10301780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sentences can usually be reorganized to avoid a misunderstanding.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10301790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* two numbers: singular and plural@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10301800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although German is usually cited as an outstanding example of a highly inflected language, the degree of inflection is considerably less than in [[Old German]], or in other old [[Indo-European languages]] such as [[Latin]], [[Ancient Greek]], or [[Sanskrit]].@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10301810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The three genders have collapsed in the plural, which now behaves, grammatically, somewhat as a fourth gender.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10301820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With four cases and three genders plus plural there are 16 distinct possible combinations of case and gender/number, but presently there are only six forms of the [[Article (grammar)|definite article]] used for the 16 possibilities.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10301830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Inflection for case on the noun itself is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns in the genitive and sometimes in the dative.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10301840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both of these cases are losing way to substitutes in [[Natural language|informal speech]].@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10301850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The dative ending is considered somewhat old-fashioned in many contexts and often dropped, but it is still used in sayings and in formal speech or in written language.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10301860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative and accusative in the singular.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10301870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Feminines are not declined in the singular.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10301880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The plural does have an inflection for the dative.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10301890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In total, seven inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: ''-s, -es, -n, -ns, -en, -ens, -e''.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10301900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the German orthography, nouns and most words with the syntactical function of nouns are capitalised, which is supposed to make it easier for readers to find out what function a word has within the sentence (''Am Freitag bin ich einkaufen gegangen.'' — "On Friday I went shopping."; ''Eines Tages war er endlich da.'' — "One day he finally showed up".)@@@@1@61@@danf@17-8-2009
10301910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This spelling convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related [[Luxemburgish language]]), although it was historically common in other languages (e.g., Danish and English), too.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10301920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like most Germanic languages, German forms left-branching noun [[compound (linguistics)|compound]]s, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second, for example: ''Hundehütte'' (eng. ''dog hut''; specifically: ''doghouse'').@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10301930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in ''open'' form with separating spaces, German (like the other German languages) nearly always uses the ''closed'' form without spaces, for example: Baumhaus (eng. ''tree house'').@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10301940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds, but these are rare.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10301950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(''See also'' [[English compounds]].)@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10301960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The longest German word verified to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is [[Rinderkennzeichnungs- und Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz|Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz]]. [which, literally translated, breaks up into: Rind (cattle) - Fleisch (meat) - Etikettierung(s) (labelling) - Überwachung(s) (supervision) - Aufgaben (duties) - Übertragung(s) (assignment) - Gesetz (law), so "Beef labelling supervision duty assignment law".]@@@@1@50@@danf@17-8-2009
10301970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Verb inflection===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10301980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Standard German verbs inflect into:@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10301990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* one of two conjugation classes, [[weak verb|weak]] and [[strong verb|strong]] (like English).@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10302000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(There is actually a third class, known as mixed verbs, which exhibit inflections combining features of both the strong and weak patterns.)@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10302010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* three persons: 1st, 2nd, 3rd.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10302020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* two numbers: singular and plural@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10302030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* three [[Grammatical mood|mood]]s: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10302040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* two [[Grammatical voice|genera verbi]]: active and passive; the passive being composed and dividable into static and dynamic.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10302050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* two non-composed tenses ([[present tense|present]], [[preterite]]) and four composed tenses ([[perfect tense|perfect]], [[pluperfect]], [[Future tense|future]] and [[Future perfect tense|future perfect]])@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10302060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* distinction between [[grammatical aspect]]s is rendered by combined use of subjunctive and/or preterite marking; thus: neither of both is plain indicative voice, sole subjunctive conveys second-hand information, subjunctive plus Preterite marking forms the conditional state, and sole preterite is either plain indicative (in the past), or functions as a (literal) alternative for either second-hand-information or for the conditional state of the verb, when one of them may seem indistinguishable otherwise.@@@@1@71@@danf@17-8-2009
10302070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* distinction between perfect and [[Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive aspect]] is and has at every stage of development been at hand as a productive category of the older language and in nearly all documented dialects, but, strangely enough, is nowadays rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.@@@@1@50@@danf@17-8-2009
10302080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* disambiguation of completed vs. uncompleted forms is widely observed and regularly generated by common prefixes (blicken - to look, erblicken - to see [unrelated form: sehen - to see]).@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10302090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Verb prefixes====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10302100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are also many ways to expand, and sometimes radically change, the meaning of a base verb through a relatively small number of prefixes.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10302110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of those prefixes have a meaning themselves (Example: zer- refers to the destruction of things, as in zerreißen&nbsp;=&nbsp;to tear apart, zerbrechen&nbsp;=&nbsp;to break apart, zerschneiden&nbsp;=&nbsp;to cut apart), others do not have more than the vaguest meaning in and of themselves (Example: ver- , as in versuchen&nbsp;=&nbsp;to try, vernehmen&nbsp;=&nbsp;to interrogate, verteilen&nbsp;=&nbsp;to distribute, verstehen&nbsp;=&nbsp;to understand).@@@@1@53@@danf@17-8-2009
10302120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More examples: haften&nbsp;=&nbsp;to stick, verhaften&nbsp;=&nbsp;to imprison; kaufen&nbsp;=&nbsp;to buy, verkaufen&nbsp;=&nbsp;to sell; hören&nbsp;=&nbsp;to hear, aufhören&nbsp;=&nbsp;to cease; fahren&nbsp;=&nbsp;to drive, erfahren&nbsp;=&nbsp;to get to know, to hear about something.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10302130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=====Separable prefixes=====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10302140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many [[German verbs]] have a separable prefix, often with an adverbial function.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10302150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[finite verb]] forms this is split off and moved to the end of the clause, and is hence considered by some to be a "resultative particle".@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10302160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ''mitgehen'' meaning "to go with" would be split giving ''Gehen Sie mit?''@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10302170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Literal: "Go you with?" ; Formal: "Are you going along"?).@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10302180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Indeed, several [[parenthetic]]al clauses may occur between the prefix of a finite verb and its complement; e.g.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10302190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''Er '''kam''' am Freitagabend nach einem harten Arbeitstag und dem üblichen Ärger, der ihn schon seit Jahren immer wieder an seinem Arbeitsplatz plagt, mit fraglicher Freude auf ein Mahl, das seine Frau ihm, wie er hoffte, bereits aufgetischt hatte, endlich zu Hause '''an''' ''.@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10302200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A literal translation of this example might look like this:@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10302210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:He '''arr-''' on a Friday evening after a hard day at work and the usual disagreements that had been troubling him repeatedly, looking forward to a questionable meal which, as he hoped, his wife had already fixed for him, '''-ived''' at home.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10302220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Word order===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10302230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German requires that a verbal element (main verb or [[auxiliary verb]]) appear second in the sentence, preceded by the most important topical phrase.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10302240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The second most important phrase appears at the end of the sentence.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10302250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For a sentence without an auxiliary, this gives several options:@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10302260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Der alte Mann gibt mir das Buch heute.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302265@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The old man gives me the book today)@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10302270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Der alte Mann gibt mir heute das Buch.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Das Buch gibt mir der alte Mann heute.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Das Buch gibt der alte Mann heute mir.}}'' ([[stress (linguistics)|stress]] on ''mir'')@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10302300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Das Buch gibt heute der alte Mann mir.}}'' (as well)@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10302310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Das Buch gibt der alte Mann mir heute.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Das Buch gibt heute mir der alte Mann.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Das Buch gibt mir heute der alte Mann.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Heute gibt mir der alte Mann das Buch.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Heute gibt mir das Buch der alte Mann.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Heute gibt der alte Mann mir das Buch.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Mir gibt der alte Mann das Buch heute.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Mir gibt heute der alte Mann das Buch.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''{{lang|de|Mir gibt der alte Mann heute das Buch.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The position of a noun as a subject or object in a German sentence doesn't affect the meaning of the sentence as it would in English.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10302410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a [[Sentence (linguistics)|declarative sentence]] in English if the subject does not occur before the predicate the sentence could well be misunderstood.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10302420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, in the sentence "Man bites dog" it is clear who did what to whom.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10302430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To exchange the place of the subject with that of the object — "Dog bites man" — changes the meaning completely.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10302440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words the word order in a sentence conveys significant information.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10302450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In German, nouns and articles are declined as in Latin thus indicating whether it is the [[subject (linguistics)|subject]] or [[object (linguistics)|object]] of the verb's action.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10302460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The above example in German would be ''{{lang|de|Ein Mann beißt den Hund}}'' or ''{{lang|de|Den Hund beißt ein Mann}}'' with both having exactly the same meaning.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10302470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If the articles are omitted, which is sometimes done in headlines (''{{lang|de|Mann beißt Hund}}''), the syntax applies as in English — the first noun is the subject and the noun following the predicate is the object.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10302480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Except for emphasis, adverbs of time have to appear in the third place in the sentence, just after the predicate.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10302490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Otherwise the speaker would be recognised as non-German.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10302500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance the German word order (in Modern English) is: We're going tomorrow to town. (''{{lang|de|Wir gehen morgen in die Stadt.}}'')@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10302510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Auxiliary verbs====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10302520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When an [[auxiliary verb]] is present, the auxiliary appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10302530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This occurs notably in the creation of the [[perfect tense]].@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10302540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many word orders are still possible, e.g.:@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10302550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''{{lang|de|Der alte Mann hat mir das Buch gestern gegeben.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302555@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(The old man gave me the book yesterday.)@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10302560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''{{lang|de|Der alte Mann hat mir gestern das Buch gegeben.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''{{lang|de|Das Buch hat mir der alte Mann gestern gegeben.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''{{lang|de|Das Buch hat mir gestern der alte Mann gegeben.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''{{lang|de|Gestern hat mir der alte Mann das Buch gegeben.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''{{lang|de|Gestern hat mir das Buch der alte Mann gegeben.}}''@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word order is generally less rigid than in Modern English except for nouns (see below).@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10302620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are two common [[word order]]s; one is for main [[clause]]s and another for [[subordinate clause]]s.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10302630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In normal positive sentences the ''inflected'' verb always has position 2; in questions, exclamations and wishes it always has position 1.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10302640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In subordinate clauses the verb is supposed to occur at the very end, but in speech this rule is often disregarded.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10302650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example in a [[Dependent clause|subordinate clause]] introduced by "weil" ("because") the verb quite often occupies the same order as in a [[Independent clause|main clause]].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10302660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The correct way of saying "because I'm broke" is ''"{{lang|de|…weil ich pleite bin.}}"''.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10302670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the vernacular you may hear instead ''"{{lang|de|…weil ich bin pleite.}}"''@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10302675@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This phenomenon may be caused by mixing the word-order pattern used for the word ''{{lang|de|weil}}'' with the pattern used for an alternative word for "because", ''{{lang|de|denn}}'', which is used with the main clause order (''"{{lang|de|…denn ich bin pleite.}}"'').@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10302680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Modal verbs====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10302690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sentences using modal verbs place the infinitive at the end.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10302700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the sentence in Modern English "Should he go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" (''{{lang|de|Soll er nach Hause gehen?}}'').@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10302710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses the infinitives are clustered at the end.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10302720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following English sentence: "What did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to out of up for?"@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10302730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Multiple infinitives====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10302740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The number of infinitives at the end is usually restricted to two, causing the third infinitive or auxiliary verb that would have gone at the very end to be placed instead at the beginning of the chain of verbs.@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10302750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example in the sentence "Should he move into the house that he just has had renovated?" would be rearranged to "Should he into the house move, that he just renovated had?".@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10302755@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(''{{lang|de|Soll er in das Haus einziehen, das er gerade hat renovieren lassen?}}'').@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10302760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The older form would have been (''{{lang|de|Soll er in das Haus, das er gerade hat renovieren lassen, einziehen?}}'').@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10302770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If there are more than three infinitives, all except the first two are relocated to the beginning of the chain.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10302780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Needless to say the rule is not rigorously applied.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Vocabulary==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10302800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, although there are significant minorities of words derived from Latin, and [[Greek language|Greek]], and a smaller amount from French and most recently English .@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10302810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the same time, the effectiveness of the German language in forming equivalents for foreign words from its inherited Germanic stem repertory is great.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10302820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, [[Notker Labeo]] was able to translate Aristotelian treatises in pure (Old High) German in the decades after the year 1000.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10302830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Overall, German has fewer Romance-language loanwords than does English.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10302840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The coining of new, autochthonous words gave German a vocabulary of an estimated 40,000 words as early as the ninth century.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10302850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In comparison, Latin, with a written tradition of nearly 2,500 years in an empire which ruled the Mediterranean, has grown to no more than 45,000 words today.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10302860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even today, many low-key scholarly movements try to promote the ''[[Ersatz]]'' (substitution) of virtually all foreign words with ancient, dialectal, or [[neologism|neologous]] German alternatives.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10302870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is claimed that this would also help in spreading modern or scientific notions among the less educated, and thus democratise public life, too.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10302880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Jurisprudence in Germany, for example, uses perhaps the "purest" tongue in terms of "Germanness", but also the most cumbersome, to be found today..@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10302890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the modern scientific German vocabulary data base in Leipzig (as of July 2003) there are nine million words and word groups in 35 million sentences (out of a corpus of 500 million words).@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10302900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Writing system==@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10302910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Present ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10302920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German is written using the Latin alphabet.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10302930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with [[Umlaut (diacritic)|Umlaut]], namely ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'', as well as the Eszett or ''[[scharfes s]]'' (sharp s), ''[[ß]]''.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10302940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Before the German spelling reform of 1996, ''ß'' replaced ''ss'' after [[Vowel length|long vowels]] and diphthongs and before consonants, word-, or partial-word-endings.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10302950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In reformed spelling, ''ß'' replaces ''ss'' only after long vowels and diphthongs.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10302960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since there is no [[capital ß]], it is always written as SS when capitalization is required.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10302970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ''Maßband'' (tape measure) is capitalized ''MASSBAND''.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10302980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An exception is the use of ß in legal documents and forms when capitalizing names.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10302990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To avoid confusion with similar names, a "ß" is to be used instead of "SS".@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10303000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(So: "KREßLEIN" instead of "KRESSLEIN".)@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10303010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A capital ß has been proposed and included in [[Unicode]], but it is not yet recognized as standard German.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10303020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[Switzerland]], ß is not used at all.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10303030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Umlaut vowels (ä, ö, ü) are commonly circumscribed with ae, oe, and ue if the umlauts are not available on the keyboard used.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10303040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the same manner ß can be circumscribed as ss. German readers understand those circumscriptions (although they look unusual), but they are avoided if the regular umlauts are available because they are considered a makeshift, not proper spelling.@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10303050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(In Westphalia, city and family names exist where the extra e has a vowel lengthening effect, e.g. ''Raesfeld'' [ˈraːsfɛlt] and ''Coesfeld'' [ˈkoːsfɛlt], but this use of the letter e after a/o/u does not occur in the present-day spelling of words other than [[proper noun]]s.@@@@1@44@@danf@17-8-2009
10303060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@)@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10303070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unfortunately there is still no general agreement exactly where these umlauts occur in the sorting sequence.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Telephone directories treat them by replacing them with the base vowel followed by an e, whereas dictionaries use just the base vowel.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10303090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As an example in a [[Telephone directory|telephone book]] ''Ärzte'' occurs after ''Adressenverlage'' but before ''Anlagenbauer'' (because Ä is replaced by Ae).@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10303100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a dictionary ''Ärzte'' occurs after ''Arzt'' but before ''Asbest'' (because Ä is treated as A).@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some older dictionaries or indexes, initial ''Sch'' and ''St'' are treated as separate letters and are listed as separate entries after ''S''.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10303120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Past ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10303130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Until the early 20th century, German was mostly printed in [[blackletter]] [[typefaces]] (mostly in [[fraktur (typeface)|Fraktur]], but also in [[Schwabacher]]) and written in corresponding [[Penmanship|handwriting]] (for example [[Kurrent]] and [[Sütterlin]]).@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10303140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or [[Sans-serif|sans serif]] [[Antiqua]] typefaces used today, and particularly the handwritten forms are difficult for the untrained to read.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10303150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The printed forms however were claimed by some to be actually more readable when used for printing [[Germanic language]]s .@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10303160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Nazis]] initially promoted Fraktur and Schwabacher since they were considered [[Aryan]], although they later abolished them in 1941 by claiming that these letters were Jewish.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10303170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The latter fact is not widely known anymore; today the letters are often associated with the Nazis and are no longer commonly used .@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10303180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Fraktur script remains present in everyday life through road signs, pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and oldness.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10303190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A proper use of the [[long s]], (''langes s''), [[Long s|ſ]], is essential to write German text in [[Fraktur (script)|Fraktur]] typefaces.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10303200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many [[Antiqua script|Antiqua]] typefaces include the [[long s]], also.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10303210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A specific set of rules applies for the use of long s in German text, but it is rarely used in Antiqua typesetting, recently.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10303220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Any lower case "s" at the beginning of a syllable would be a long s, as opposed to a terminal s or short s (the more common variation of the letter s), which marks the end of a syllable; for example, in differentiating between the words ''Wachſtube'' (=guard-house) and ''Wachstube'' (=tube of floor polish).@@@@1@54@@danf@17-8-2009
10303230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One can decide which "s" to use by appropriate hyphenation, easily ("Wach-ſtube" vs. "Wachs-tube").@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10303240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The long s only appears in [[lower case]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10303250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The widespread ignorance of the correct use of the Fraktur scripts shows however in the many mistakes made&mdash; such as the frequent erroneous use of the round s instead of the [[long s]] at the beginning of a syllable, the failure to employ the mandatory [[Typographical ligature|ligature]]s of Fraktur, or the use of letter-forms more alike to the Antiqua for certain especially hard-to-read Fraktur letters.@@@@1@65@@danf@17-8-2009
10303260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Phonology==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10303270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Vowels===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10303280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German vowels (excluding diphthongs; see below) come in ''short'' and ''long'' varieties, as detailed in the following table:@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10303290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Short {{IPA|/ɛ/}} is realised as {{IPA|[ɛ]}} in stressed syllables (including [[secondary stress]]), but as {{IPA|[ǝ]}} in unstressed syllables.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10303300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that stressed short {{IPA|/ɛ/}} can be spelled either with ''e'' or with ''ä'' (''hätte'' 'would have' and ''Kette'' 'chain', for instance, rhyme).@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10303310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In general, the short vowels are open and the long vowels are closed.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10303320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The one exception is the open {{IPA|/ɛː/}} sound of long Ä; in some varieties of standard German, {{IPA|/ɛː/}} and {{IPA|/eː/}} have merged into {{IPA|[eː]}}, removing this anomaly.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10303330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In that case, pairs like ''Bären/Beeren'' 'bears/berries' or ''Ähre/Ehre'' 'spike/honour' become homophonous).@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10303340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many varieties of standard German, an unstressed {{IPA|/ɛr/}} is not pronounced as {{IPA|[ər]}}, but vocalised to {{IPA|[ɐ]}}.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10303350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Whether any particular vowel letter represents the long or short phoneme is not completely predictable, although the following regularities exist:@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10303360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* If a vowel (other than ''i'') is at the end of a syllable or followed by a single consonant, it is usually pronounced long (e.g. ''Hof'' [hoːf]).@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10303370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* If the vowel is followed by a double consonant (e.g. ''ff'', ''ss'' or ''tt''), ''ck'', ''tz'' or a [[consonant cluster]] (e.g. ''st'' or ''nd''), it is nearly always short (e.g. ''hoffen'' [ˈhɔfǝn]).@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10303380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Double consonants are used only for this function of marking preciding vowels as short; the consonant itself is never pronounced lengthened or doubled.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10303390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both of these rules have exceptions (e.g. ''hat'' [hat] 'has' is short despite the first rule; ''Kloster'' {{IPA|[kloːstər]}}, '[[cloister]]'; ''Mond'' {{IPA|[moːnt]}}, '[[moon]]' are long despite the second rule).@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10303400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For an ''i'' that is neither in the combination ''ie'' (making it long) nor followed by a double consonant or cluster (making it short), there is no general rule.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10303410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some cases, there are regional differences: In central Germany (Hessen), the ''o'' in the [[Noun#Proper nouns and common nouns|proper name]] "Hoffmann" is pronounced long while most other Germans would pronounce it short; the same applies to the ''e'' in the geographical name "Mecklenburg" for people in that region.@@@@1@49@@danf@17-8-2009
10303420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word ''Städte'' 'cities', is pronounced with a short vowel {{IPA|[ˈʃtɛtə]}} by some (Jan Hofer, ARD Television) and with a long vowel {{IPA|[ˈʃtɛːtə]}} by others (Marietta Slomka, ZDF Television).@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10303430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Finally, a vowel followed by ''ch'' can be short (''Fach'' {{IPA|[fax]}} 'compartment', ''Küche'' {{IPA|[ˈkʏçe]}} 'kitchen') or long (''Suche'' {{IPA|[ˈzuːxǝ]}} 'search', ''Bücher'' {{IPA|[ˈbyːçər]}} 'books') almost at random.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10303440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thus, ''Lache'' is homographous: {{IPA|[la:xe]}} 'puddle' and {{IPA|[laxe]}} 'manner of laughing' (coll.), 'laugh!'@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10303450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Imp.).@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10303460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German vowels can form the following digraphs (in writing) and diphthongs (in pronunciation); note that the pronunciation of some of them (ei, äu, eu) is very different from what one would expect when considering the component letters:@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10303470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, the digraph ''ie'' generally represents the phoneme {{IPA|/iː/}}, which is not a diphthong.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10303480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In many varieties, a /r/ at the end of a syllable is vocalised.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10303490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, a sequence of a vowel followed by such a vocalised /r/ is not considered a diphthong: Bär {{IPA|[bɛːɐ̯]}} 'bear', er {{IPA|[eːɐ̯]}} 'he', wir {{IPA|[viːɐ̯]}} 'we', Tor {{IPA|[toːɐ̯]}} 'gate', kurz {{IPA|[kʊɐ̯ts]}} 'short', Wörter {{IPA|[vœɐ̯tɐ]}} 'words'.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10303500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In most varieties of standard German, word stems that begin with a vowel are preceded by a [[glottal stop]] [ʔ].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10303510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Consonants===@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10303520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''c''' standing by itself is not a German letter.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10303530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In borrowed words, it is usually pronounced [ʦ] (before ä, äu, e, i, ö, ü, y) or [k] (before a, o, u, or before consonants).@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10303540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The combination '''ck''' is, as in English, used to indicate that the preceding vowel is short.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''ch''' occurs most often and is pronounced either [ç] (after ä, ai, äu, e, ei, eu, i, ö, ü and after consonants) or [x] (after a, au, o, u).@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10303560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ch never occurs at the beginning of an originally German word.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10303570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In borrowed words with initial Ch there is no single agreement on the pronunciation.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10303580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the word ''"Chemie"'' (chemistry) can be pronounced [keːˈmiː], [çeːˈmiː] or [ʃeːˈmiː] depending on dialect.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''dsch''' is pronounced ʤ (like ''j'' in ''Jungle'') but appears in a few [[loanwords]] only.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''f''' is pronounced [f] as in "''f''ather".@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10303610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''h''' is pronounced [h] like in "''h''ome" at the beginning of a syllable.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10303620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After a vowel it is silent and only lengthens the vowel (e.g. ''"Reh"'' = [[roe deer]]).@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''j''' is pronounced [j] in Germanic words (''"Jahr"'' [jaːɐ]).@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10303640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In younger loanwords, it follows more or less the respective languages' pronunciations.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10303650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''l''' is always pronounced [l], never [ɫ] (the English "[[Dark L]]").@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10303660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''q''' only exists in combination with '''u''' and appears both in Germanic and Latin words (''"quer"''; ''"Qualität"'').@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10303670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is pronounced [kv].@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10303680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''r''' is pronounced as a [[Guttural R|guttural sound]] (an [[uvular trill]], [ʀ]) in front of a vowel or consonant (''"Rasen"'' [ʀaːzən]; ''"Burg"'' like [buʀg]).@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10303690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In spoken German however, it is commonly vocalised after a vowel (''"er"'' being pronounced rather like ['ɛɐ] - ''"Burg"'' [buɐg]).@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10303700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some southern non-standard varieties, the '''r''' is pronounced as a tongue-tip r (the [[alveolar trill]]).@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''s''' in Germany, is pronounced [z] (as in "''Z''ebra") if it forms the [[syllable onset]] (e.g. Sohn [zoːn]), otherwise [s] (e.g. Bus [bʊs]).@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10303720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Austria, always pronounced [s].@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10303730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A '''ss''' [s] indicates that the preceding vowel is short. '''st''' and '''sp''' at the beginning of words of German origin are pronounced [ʃt] and [ʃp], respectively.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10303740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''ß''' (a letter unique to German called "Esszet") was a ligature of a double '''s''' ''and'' of a '''sz''' and is always pronounced [s].@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10303750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Originating in [[Blackletter]] typeface, it traditionally replaced '''ss''' at the end of a syllable (e.g. ''"ich muss"'' → ''"ich muß"''; ''"ich müsste"'' → ''"ich müßte"''); within a word it contrasts with '''ss''' [s] in indicating that the preceding vowel is long (compare ''"in Maßen"'' [in 'maːsən] "with moderation" and ''"in Massen"'' [in 'masən] "in loads").@@@@1@55@@danf@17-8-2009
10303760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The use of '''ß''' has recently been limited by the latest German spelling reform and is no longer used for '''ss''' at the end of a syllable; Switzerland and Liechtenstein already abolished it in 1934.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10303770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''sch''' is pronounced [ʃ] (like "sh" in "Shine").@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10303780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''v''' is pronounced [f] in words of Germanic origin (e.g. ''"Vater"'' [ˈfaːtɐ]) and [v] in most other words (e.g. ''"Vase"'' [ˈvaːzǝ]).@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10303790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''w''' is pronounced [v] like in "''v''acation" (e.g. ''"was"'' [vas]).@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10303800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''y''' only appears in loanwords and is traditionally considered a vowel.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10303810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@* '''z''' is always pronounced [ʦ] (e.g. ''"zog"'' [ʦoːk]).@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10303820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A '''tz''' indicates that the preceding vowel is short.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10303830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@====Consonant shifts====@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10303840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German does not have any [[dental fricative]]s (as English '''th''').@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10303850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The '''th''' sounds, which the English language has inherited from [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo Saxon]], survived on the continent up to Old High German and then disappeared in German with the consonant shifts between the 8th and the 10th century.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10303860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is sometimes possible to find parallels between German by replacing the English '''th''' with '''d''' in German: "Thank" → in German "Dank", "this" and "that" → "dies" and "das", "[[thou]]" (old 2nd person singular pronoun) → "du", "think" → "denken", "thirsty" → "durstig" and many other examples.@@@@1@48@@danf@17-8-2009
10303870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise, the '''gh''' in [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] English words, pronounced in several different ways in modern English (as an '''f''', or not at all), can often be linked to German '''ch''': "to laugh" → "lachen", "through" and "thorough" → "durch", "high" → "hoch", "naught" → "nichts", etc.@@@@1@46@@danf@17-8-2009
10303880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Cognates with English==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10303890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are many thousands of German words that are [[cognate]] to English words (in fact a sizeable fraction of native German and English vocabulary, although for various reasons much of it is not immediately obvious).@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10303900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the words in the following table have almost the same meaning as in English.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Compound word cognates@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10303920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When these cognates have slightly different consonants, this is often due to the High German consonant shift.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10303930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hence the affinity of English words with those of German dialects is more evidently:@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10303940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are cognates whose meanings in either language have changed through the centuries.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10303950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is sometimes difficult for both English and German speakers to discern the relationship.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10303960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, once the definitions are made clear, then the logical relation becomes obvious.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10303970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sometimes the generality or specificity of word pairs may be opposite in the two languages.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10303980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@German and English also share many borrowings from other languages, especially Latin, French and Greek.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10303990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of these words have the same meaning, while a few have subtle differences in meaning.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10304000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As many of these words have been borrowed by numerous languages, not only German and English, they are called ''[[internationalism (linguistics)|internationalisms]]'' in German linguistics.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10304010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For reference, a good number of these borrowed words are of the neuter gender.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10304020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Words borrowed by English==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10304030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''For a list of German loanwords in English, see [[:Category:German loanwords]]''@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10304040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the English language, there are also many words taken from German without any letter change, e.g.:@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10304050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Names for German in other languages==@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10304060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@:''See also: [[Deutsch]], [[Names for the Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Deitsch]], [[Dietsch]], [[Teuton]], [[Teutonic]], [[Allemanic]], [[Alleman]], [[Theodisca]]''@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10304070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The names that countries have for the language differ from region to region.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10304080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In Italian the sole name for German is still ''tedesco'', from the Latin ''[[theodiscus]]'', meaning "vernacular".@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10304090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A possible explanation for the use of words meaning "mute" (e.g., ''nemoj'' in Russian, ''němý'' in Czech, ''nem'' in [[Serbian language|Serbian]]) to refer to German (and also to Germans) in Slavic languages is that Germans were the first people [[Slavic peoples|Slavic tribes]] encountered with whom they could not communicate.@@@@1@49@@danf@17-8-2009
10304100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Romanian language|Romanian]] used to use the Slavonic term "nemţeşte", but "germană" is now widely used.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10304110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hungarian "német" is also of Slavonic origin.@@@@1@7@@danf@17-8-2009
10304120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name for Austria, النمسا ("an-namsa"), is derived from the Slavonic term.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10304130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note also that though the Russian term for the language is ''немецкий'' ''(nemetskij)'', the country is ''Германия'' ''(Germania)''.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10304140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, in certain other [[Slavic languages]], such as Czech, the country name (''Německo'') is similar to the name of the language, ''německý'' (jazyk).@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10304150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Finns]] and [[Estonians]] use the term ''saksa'', originally from the [[Saxon people|Saxon]] tribe.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10304160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Scandinavians]] use derivatives of the word ''Tyskland/Þýskaland'' (from Theodisca) for the country and ''tysk(a)/þýska'' for the language.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10304170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] traditionally (nowadays this is not the case) used the Biblical term אַשְׁכֲּנָז ([[Ashkenaz]]) (Genesis 10:3) to refer to Germany, or to certain parts of it, and the [[Ashkenazi]] Jews are those who originate from Germany and [[Eastern Europe]] and formerly spoke Yiddish as their native language, derived from [[Middle High German]].@@@@1@53@@danf@17-8-2009
10304180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Modern Hebrew uses גֶּרְמָנִי ''germaní'' (Or גֶּרְמָנִית ''germanít'' for the language).@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10304190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The French term is ''allemand'', the Spanish term is ''alemán'', the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] term is ''alemany'', and the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] term is ''alemão''; all derive from the ancient [[Alamanni]] tribal alliance, meaning literally "''All Men''".@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10304200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Latvian language|Latvian]] term ''vācu'' means "tinny" and refers disparagingly to the iron-clad [[Teutonic Knights]] that colonized the Baltic in the Middle Ages.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10304210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Scottish Gaelic]] term for the German language, ''Gearmailtis'', is formed in the standard way of adding ''-(a)is'' to the end of the country name.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10304220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See [[Names for Germany]] for further details on the origins of these and other terms.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10310010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@<article>GNU General Public License</article>@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10310020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The '''GNU General Public License''' ('''GNU GPL''' or simply '''GPL''') is a widely used [[free software license]], originally written by [[Richard Stallman]] for the [[GNU project]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10310030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL is the most popular and well-known example of the type of strong [[copyleft]] license that requires derived works to be available under the same copyleft.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10310040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Under this philosophy, the GPL is said to grant the recipients of a [[computer program]] the rights of the [[free software definition]] and uses copyleft to ensure the freedoms are preserved, even when the work is changed or added to.@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10310050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is in distinction to [[permissive free software licenses]], of which the [[BSD licenses]] are the standard examples.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10310060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL) is a modified, more permissive, version of the GPL, originally intended for some [[library (computing)|software libraries]].@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10310070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is also a [[GNU Free Documentation License]], which was originally intended for use with documentation for GNU software, but has also been adopted for other uses, such as the [[Wikipedia]] project.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10310080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The [[Affero General Public License]] (GNU AGPL) is a similar license with a focus on networking server software.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10310090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GNU AGPL is similar to the GNU General Public License, except that it additionally covers the use of the software over a computer network, requiring that the complete source code be made available to any network user of the AGPLed work, for example a web application.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10310100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Free Software Foundation recommends that this license is considered for any software that will commonly be run over the network.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10310110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==History==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10310120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL was written by [[Richard Stallman]] in 1989 for use with programs released as part of the [[GNU project]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10310130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of [[GNU Emacs]], the [[GNU Debugger]] and the [[GNU Compiler Collection]].@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10310140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, despite being the same license.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10310150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Stallman's goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10310160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An important vote of confidence in the GPL came from [[Linus Torvalds]]' adoption of the license for the [[History of the Linux kernel|Linux kernel]] in 1992, switching from an earlier license that prohibited commercial distribution.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10310170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of August 2007, the GPL accounted for nearly 65% of the 43,442 free software projects listed on [[Freshmeat]], and [[As of 2006|as of January 2006]], about 68% of the projects listed on [[SourceForge.net]].@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10310180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, a 2001 survey of [[Red Hat Linux]] 7.1 found that 50% of the source code was licensed under the GPL and a 1997 survey of [[Ibiblio|MetaLab]], then the largest free software archive, showed that the GPL accounted for about half of the licenses used.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10310190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One survey of a large repository of open-source software reported that in July 1997, about half the software packages with explicit license terms used the GPL.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10310200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Prominent free software programs licensed under the GPL include the [[Linux kernel]] and the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC).@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10310210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some other free software programs are [[dual-licensed]] under multiple licenses, often with one of the licenses being the GPL.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10310220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some observers believe that the strong [[copyleft]] provided by the GPL was crucial to the success of Linux, giving the programmers who contributed to it the confidence that their work would benefit the whole world and remain free, rather than being exploited by software companies that would not have to give anything back to the community.@@@@1@56@@danf@17-8-2009
10310230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10310240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over the following 15 years, some members of the [[free software community|FOSS (Free and Open Source Software) community]] came to believe that some software and hardware vendors were finding loopholes in the GPL, allowing GPL-licensed software to be exploited in ways that were contrary to the intentions of the programmers.@@@@1@50@@danf@17-8-2009
10310250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These concerns included [[tivoization]] (the inclusion of GPL-licensed software in hardware that will refuse to run modified versions of its software); the use of unpublished, modified versions of GPL software behind web interfaces; and patent deals between [[Microsoft]] and Linux and Unix distributors that may represent an attempt to use patents as a weapon against competition from Linux.@@@@1@58@@danf@17-8-2009
10310260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10310270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was [http://www.fsf.org/news/gplv3_launched officially released] on [[June 29]], [[2007]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10310280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Versions==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10310290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Version 1===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10310300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released in January 1989, prevented what were then the two main ways that software distributors restricted the freedoms that define free software.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10310310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first problem was that distributors may publish [[binary file]]s only – executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10310320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To prevent this, GPLv1 said that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the human readable source code available under the same licensing terms.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10310330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The second problem was the distributors might add additional restrictions, either by adding restrictions to the license, or by combining the software with other software which had other restrictions on its distribution.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10310340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If this was done, then the union of the two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus unacceptable restrictions could be added.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10310350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To prevent this, GPLv1 said that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10310360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, as this would not change the terms under which the whole could be distributed, but software distributed under GPLv1 could not be combined with software distributed under a more restrictive license, as this would conflict with the requirement that the whole be distributable under the terms of GPLv1.@@@@1@65@@danf@17-8-2009
10310370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Version 2===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10310380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the "Liberty or Death" clause, as he calls it - Section 7.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10310390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This section says that if someone has restrictions imposed that ''prevent'' him or her from distributing GPL-covered software in a way that respects other users' freedom (for example, if a legal ruling states that he or she can only distribute the software in binary form), he or she cannot distribute it at all.@@@@1@53@@danf@17-8-2009
10310400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By 1990, it was becoming apparent that a less restrictive license would be strategically useful for some software libraries; when version 2 of the GPL (GPLv2) was released in June 1991, therefore, a second license - the Library General Public License (LGPL) was introduced at the same time and numbered with version 2 to show that both were complementary.@@@@1@59@@danf@17-8-2009
10310410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The version numbers diverged in 1999 when version 2.1 of the LGPL was released, which renamed it the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] to reflect its place in the GNU philosophy.@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10310420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@===Version 3===@@@@1@2@@danf@17-8-2009
10310430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In late 2005, the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) announced work on version 3 of the GPL (GPLv3).@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10310440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On [[January 16]], [[2006]], the first "discussion draft" of GPLv3 was published, and the public consultation began.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10310450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The public consultation was originally planned for nine to fifteen months but finally stretched to eighteen months with four drafts being published.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10310460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The official GPLv3 was released by FSF on [[June 29]], [[2007]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10310470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@GPLv3 was written by [[Richard Stallman]], with legal counsel from [[Eben Moglen]] and [[Software Freedom Law Center]].@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10310480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to Stallman, the most important changes are in relation to [[Software patents and free software|software patents]], [[free software license]] compatibility, the definition of "source code", and hardware restrictions on software modification ("[[tivoization]]").@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10310490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other changes relate to internationalisation, how license violations are handled, and how additional permissions can be granted by the copyright holder.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10310500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other notable changes include allowing authors to add certain additional conditions or requirements to their contributions.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10310510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of those new optional requirements, sometimes referred to as the Affero clause, is intended to fulfill a request regarding [[software as a service]]; the permitting addition of this requirement makes GPLv3 compatible with the [[Affero General Public License]].@@@@1@39@@danf@17-8-2009
10310520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The public consultation process was coordinated by the Free Software Foundation with assistance from [[Software Freedom Law Center]], [[Free Software Foundation Europe]], and other free software groups.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10310530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Comments were collected from the public via the gplv3.fsf.org web portal.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10310540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That portal runs purpose-written software called [[stet (software)|stet]].@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10310550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These comments were passed to four committees comprising approximately 130 people, including supporters and detractors of FSF's goals.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10310560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those committees researched the comments submitted by the public and passed their summaries to Stallman for a decision on what the license would do.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10310570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During the public consultation process, 962 comments were submitted for the first draft.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10310580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By the end, a total of 2,636 comments had been submitted.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10310590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The third draft was released on [[March 28]], [[2007]].@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10310600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This draft included language intended to prevent patent cross-licenses like the controversial [[Novell#Agreement with Microsoft|Microsoft-Novell patent agreement]] and restricts the anti-tivoization clauses to a legal definition of a "User" or "consumer product."@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10310610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It also explicitly removed the section on "Geographical Limitations", whose probable removal had been announced at the launch of the public consultation.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10310620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The fourth discussion draft, which was the last, was released on [[May 31]], [[2007]].@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10310630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It introduced [[Apache Software License]] compatibility, clarified the role of outside contractors, and made an exception to permit the Microsoft-Novell agreement, saying in section 11 paragraph 6 that@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10310640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This aims to make future such deals ineffective.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10310650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The license is also meant to cause Microsoft to extend the patent licenses it grants to Novell customers for the use of GPLv3 software to ''all'' users of that GPLv3 software; this is possible only if Microsoft is legally a "conveyor" of the GPLv3 software.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10310660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Others, notably some high-profile developers of the [[Linux kernel]], commented to the mass media and made public statements about their objections to parts of discussion drafts 1 and 2.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10310670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Terms and conditions ==@@@@1@5@@danf@17-8-2009
10310680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The terms and conditions of the GPL are available to anybody receiving a copy of the work that has a GPL applied to it ("the licensee").@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10310690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Any licensee who adheres to the terms and conditions is given permission to modify the work, as well as to copy and redistribute the work or any derivative version.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10310700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The licensee is allowed to charge a fee for this service, or do this free of charge.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10310710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This latter point distinguishes the GPL from software licenses that prohibit commercial redistribution.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10310720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The FSF argues that free software should not place restrictions on commercial use, and the GPL explicitly states that GPL works may be sold at any price.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10310730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL additionally states that a distributor may not impose "further restrictions on the rights granted by the GPL".@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10310740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This forbids activities such as distributing of the software under a non-disclosure agreement or contract.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10310750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Distributors under the GPL also grant a license for any of their patents practiced by the software, to practice those patents in GPL software.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10310760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Section three of the license requires that programs distributed as pre-compiled binaries are accompanied by a copy of the source code, a written offer to distribute the source code via the same mechanism as the pre-compiled binary or the written offer to obtain the source code that you got when you received the pre-compiled binary under the GPL.@@@@1@58@@danf@17-8-2009
10310770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@=== Copyleft ===@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10310780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The distribution rights granted by the GPL for modified versions of the work are not unconditional.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10310790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When someone distributes a GPL'd work plus their own modifications, the requirements for distributing the whole work cannot be any greater than the requirements that are in the GPL.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10310800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This requirement is known as copyleft.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10310810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It earns its legal power from the use of [[copyright]] on software programs.@@@@1@13@@danf@17-8-2009
10310820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because a GPL work is copyrighted, a licensee has no right to redistribute it, not even in modified form (barring [[fair use]]), except under the terms of the license.@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10310830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One is only required to adhere to the terms of the GPL if one wishes to exercise rights normally restricted by copyright law, such as redistribution.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10310840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Conversely, if one distributes copies of the work without abiding by the terms of the GPL (for instance, by keeping the source code secret), he or she can be [[lawsuit|sued]] by the original author under copyright law.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10310850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Copyleft thus uses copyright law to accomplish the opposite of its usual purpose: instead of imposing restrictions, it grants rights to other people, in a way that ensures the rights cannot subsequently be taken away.@@@@1@35@@danf@17-8-2009
10310860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It also ensures that unlimited redistribution rights are not granted, should any legal flaw (or "[[computer bug|bug]]") be found in the copyleft statement.@@@@1@23@@danf@17-8-2009
10310870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many distributors of GPL'ed programs bundle the source code with the [[executable]]s.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10310880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An alternative method of satisfying the copyleft is to provide a written offer to provide the source code on a physical medium (such as a CD) upon request.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10310890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In practice, many GPL'ed programs are distributed over the [[Internet]], and the source code is made available over [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]].@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10310900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For Internet distribution, this complies with the license.@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10310910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Copyleft applies only when a person seeks to redistribute the program.@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10310920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One is allowed to make private modified versions, without any obligation to divulge the modifications as long as the modified software is not distributed to anyone else.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10310930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that the copyleft applies only to the software and not to its output (unless that output is itself a derivative work of the program); for example, a public web portal running a modified derivative of a GPL'ed [[content management system]] is not required to distribute its changes to the underlying software.@@@@1@52@@danf@17-8-2009
10310940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Licensing and contractual issues==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10310950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL was designed as a [[license]], rather than a [[contract]].@@@@1@11@@danf@17-8-2009
10310960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In some [[Common Law]] jurisdictions, the legal distinction between a license and a contract is an important one: contracts are enforceable by [[contract law]], whereas licenses are enforced under [[copyright law]].@@@@1@31@@danf@17-8-2009
10310970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, this distinction is not useful in the many jurisdictions where there are no differences between contracts and licenses, such as [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil Law]] systems.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10310980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those who do not agree to the GPL's terms and conditions do not have permission, under copyright law, to copy or distribute GPL licensed software or derivative works.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10310990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, they may still use the software however they like.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10311000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Copyright holders ==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10311010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The text of the GPL is itself copyrighted, and the copyright is held by the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF).@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10311020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the FSF does not hold the copyright for a work released under the GPL, unless an author explicitly assigns copyrights to the FSF (which seldom happens except for programs that are part of the [[GNU]] project).@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10311030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Only the individual copyright holders have the authority to sue when a license violation takes place.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10311040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The FSF permits people to create new licenses based on the GPL, as long as the derived licenses do not use the GPL preamble without permission.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10311050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is discouraged, however, since such a license is generally incompatible with the GPL.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10311060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(See the [http://www.fsf.org/licenses/gpl-faq.html#ModifyGPL GPL FAQ] for more information.)@@@@1@8@@danf@17-8-2009
10311070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Other licenses created by the GNU project include the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10311080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== The GPL in court ==@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10311090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A key dispute related to the GPL is whether or not non-GPL software can [[library linking|dynamically link]] to GPL libraries.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10311100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL is clear in requiring that all [[derivative work]]s of GPL'ed code must themselves be GPL'ed.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10311110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, it is not clear whether an executable that dynamically links to a GPL code should be considered a derivative work.@@@@1@21@@danf@17-8-2009
10311120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The free/open-source software community is split on this issue.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10311130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The FSF asserts that such an executable is indeed a derivative work if the executable and GPL code "make function calls to each other and share data structures," with others agreeing, while some (e.g. [[Linus Torvalds]]) agree that dynamic linking can create derived works but disagree over the circumstances.@@@@1@49@@danf@17-8-2009
10311150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, some experts have argued that the question is still open: one [[Novell]] lawyer has written that dynamic linking not being derivative "makes sense" but is not "clear-cut," and [[Lawrence Rosen]] has claimed that a court of law would "probably" exclude dynamic linking from derivative works although "there are also good arguments" on the other side and "the outcome is not clear" (on a later occasion, he argued that "market-based" factors are more important than the linking technique).@@@@1@81@@danf@17-8-2009
10311160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is ultimately a question not of the GPL ''per se'', but of how copyright law defines derivative works.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10311170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ''[[Galoob v. Nintendo]]'' the [[Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] defined a derivative work as having "'form' or permanence" and noted that "the infringing work must incorporate a portion of the copyrighted work in some form," but there have been no clear court decisions to resolve this particular conflict.@@@@1@49@@danf@17-8-2009
10311180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since there is no record of anyone circumventing the GPL by dynamic linking and contesting when threatened with lawsuits by the copyright holder, the restriction appears ''[[de facto]]'' enforceable even if not yet proven ''[[de jure]]''.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10311190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2002, MySQL AB sued Progress NuSphere for copyright and trademark infringement in [[U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts|United States district court]].@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10311200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@NuSphere had allegedly violated MySQL's copyright by linking code for the Gemini table type into the MySQL server.@@@@1@18@@danf@17-8-2009
10311210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After a preliminary hearing before Judge [[Patti Saris]] on [[February 27]], [[2002]], the parties entered settlement talks and eventually settled.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10311220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@At the hearing, Judge Saris "saw no reason" that the GPL would not be enforceable.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10311230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In August 2003, the [[SCO Group]] stated that they believed the GPL to have no legal validity, and that they intended to take up lawsuits over sections of code supposedly copied from SCO Unix into the [[Linux kernel]].@@@@1@38@@danf@17-8-2009
10311240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This was a problematic stand for them, as they had distributed Linux and other GPL'ed code in their [[Caldera OpenLinux]] distribution, and there is little evidence that they had any legal right to do so except under the terms of the GPL.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10311250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For more information, see [[SCO-Linux controversies]] and [[SCO v. IBM]].@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10311260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In April 2004 the [[netfilter/iptables]] project was granted a preliminary [[injunction]] against Sitecom Germany by [[Munich]] District Court after Sitecom refused to desist from distributing Netfilter's GPL'ed software in violation of the terms of the GPL.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10311270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On July 2004 , the German court confirmed this injunction as a final ruling against Sitecom.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10311280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The court's justification for its decision exactly mirrored the predictions given earlier by the FSF's [[Eben Moglen]]:@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10311290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@: ''Defendant has infringed on the copyright of plaintiff by offering the software 'netfilter/iptables' for download and by advertising its distribution, without adhering to the license conditions of the GPL.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10311300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Said actions would only be permissible if defendant had a license grant...@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10311310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is independent of the questions whether the licensing conditions of the GPL have been effectively agreed upon between plaintiff and defendant or not.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10311320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If the GPL were not agreed upon by the parties, defendant would notwithstanding lack the necessary rights to copy, distribute, and make the software 'netfilter/iptables' publicly available.''@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10311330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This ruling was important because it was the first time that a court had confirmed that violating terms of the GPL was an act of copyright violation.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10311340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the case was not as crucial a test for the GPL as some have concluded.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10311350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the case, the enforceability of GPL itself was not under attack.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10311360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Instead, the court was merely attempting to discern if the license itself was in effect.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10311370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In May of [[2005]], [[Wallace versus International Business Machines et al|Daniel Wallace]] filed suit against the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Indiana|Southern District of Indiana]], contending that the GPL is an illegal attempt to fix prices at zero.@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10311380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The suit was dismissed in March 2006, on the grounds that Wallace had failed to state a valid anti-trust claim; the court noted that "the GPL encourages, rather than discourages, free competition and the distribution of computer operating systems, the benefits of which directly pass to consumers."@@@@1@47@@danf@17-8-2009
10311390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Wallace was denied the possibility of further amending his complaint, and was ordered to pay the FSF's legal expenses.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10311400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On September 8, 2005, Seoul Central District Court ruled that GPL has no legal relevance concerning the case dealing with [[trade secret]] derived from GPL-licensed work.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10311410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Defendants argued that since it is impossible to maintain trade secret while being compliant with GPL and distributing the work, they aren't in breach of trade secret.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10311420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This argument was considered without ground.@@@@1@6@@danf@17-8-2009
10311430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On September 6, 2006, the [[gpl-violations.org]] project prevailed in court litigation against D-Link Germany GmbH regarding D-Link's inappropriate and copyright infringing use of parts of the Linux Operating System Kernel.@@@@1@30@@danf@17-8-2009
10311440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The judgment finally provided the on-record, legal precedent that the GPL is valid and legally binding, and that it will stand up in German court.@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10311450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In late 2007, the developers of [[BusyBox]] and the [[Software Freedom Law Center]] embarked upon a program to gain GPL compliance from distributors of BusyBox in [[embedded system]]s, suing those who would not comply.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10311460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These were claimed to be the first US uses of courts for enforcement of GPL obligations.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10311470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@''See'' [[BusyBox#GPL lawsuits]].@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10311480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Compatibility and multi-licensing==@@@@1@4@@danf@17-8-2009
10311490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of the most common free software licenses, such as the original [[MIT License|MIT/X license]], the [[BSD license]] (in its current 3-clause form), and the [[GNU Lesser General Public License|LGPL]], are "GPL-[[License compatibility|compatible]]".@@@@1@33@@danf@17-8-2009
10311500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@That is, their code can be combined with a program under the GPL without conflict (the new combination would have the GPL applied to the whole).@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10311510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, some free/open source software licenses are not GPL-compatible.@@@@1@9@@danf@17-8-2009
10311520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many GPL proponents have strongly advocated that free/open source software developers use only GPL-compatible licenses, because doing otherwise makes it difficult to reuse software in larger wholes.@@@@1@27@@danf@17-8-2009
10311530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Note that this issue only arises in concurrent use of licenses which impose conditions on their manner of combination.@@@@1@19@@danf@17-8-2009
10311540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some licenses, such as the BSD license, impose no conditions on the manner of their combination.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10311550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also see the [[list of FSF approved software licenses]] for examples of compatible and incompatible licenses.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10311560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of businesses use [[dual-licensing]] to distribute a GPL version and sell a [[proprietary software|proprietary]] license to companies wishing to combine the package with proprietary code, using dynamic linking or not.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10311570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Examples of such companies include [[MySQL AB]], [[Trolltech]] ([[Qt (toolkit)|Qt toolkit]]), [[Namesys]] ([[ReiserFS]]) and [[Red Hat]] ([[Cygwin]]).@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10311580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@== Adoption ==@@@@1@3@@danf@17-8-2009
10311590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Open Source License Resource Center maintained by [[Black Duck Software]] shows that GPL is the license used in about 70% of all open source software.@@@@1@26@@danf@17-8-2009
10311600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vast majority of projects are released under GPL 2 with 3000 open source projects having migrated to GPL 3.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10311610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@==Criticism==@@@@1@1@@danf@17-8-2009
10311620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In [[2001]] [[Microsoft]] [[CEO]] [[Steve Ballmer]] referred to Linux as "a cancer that attaches itself in an intellectual property sense to everything it touches."@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10311630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Critics of Microsoft claim that the real reason Microsoft dislikes the GPL is that the GPL resists proprietary vendors' attempts to "[[embrace, extend and extinguish]]".@@@@1@25@@danf@17-8-2009
10311640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft has released [[Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX]] which contains GPL-licensed code.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009
10311650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In response to Microsoft's attacks on the GPL, several prominent Free Software developers and advocates released a joint statement supporting the license.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10311660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL has been described as being [[Copyleft#Is copyleft .22viral.22.3F|"viral"]] by many of its critics because the GPL only allows conveyance of whole programs, which means that programmers are not allowed to convey programs that [[GPL linking exception|link]] to libraries having GPL-incompatible licenses.@@@@1@43@@danf@17-8-2009
10311670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The so-called "viral" effect of this is that under such circumstances disparately licensed software cannot be combined unless one of the licenses is changed.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10311680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Although theoretically either license could be changed, in the "viral" scenario the GPL cannot be practically changed (because the software may have so many contributors, some of whom will likely refuse), whereas the license of the other software ''can'' be practically changed.@@@@1@42@@danf@17-8-2009
10311690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is part of a [[BSD and GPL licensing|philosophical difference]] between the GPL and permissive free software licenses such as the [[BSD licenses|BSD-style licenses]], which do not put such a requirement on modified versions.@@@@1@34@@danf@17-8-2009
10311700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While proponents of the GPL believe that free software should ensure that its freedoms are preserved all the way from the developer to the user, others believe that intermediaries between the developer and the user should be free to redistribute the software as non-free software.@@@@1@45@@danf@17-8-2009
10311710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@More specifically, the GPL requires that redistribution occur subject to the GPL, whereas more "permissive" licenses allow redistribution to occur under licenses more restrictive than the original license.@@@@1@28@@danf@17-8-2009
10311720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the GPL does allow commercial distribution of GPL software, the market price will settle near the price of distribution&mdash;near zero&mdash;since the purchasers may redistribute the software and its source code for their cost of redistribution.@@@@1@36@@danf@17-8-2009
10311730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This could be seen to inhibit commercial use of GPL'ed code by others wishing to use that code for proprietary purposes&mdash;if they don't wish to avail themselves of GPL'ed code, they will have to re-implement it themselves.@@@@1@37@@danf@17-8-2009
10311740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft has included anti-GPL terms in their open source software.@@@@1@10@@danf@17-8-2009
10311750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, the [[FreeBSD]] project has stated that "a less publicized and unintended use of the GPL is that it is very favorable to large companies that want to undercut software companies.@@@@1@32@@danf@17-8-2009
10311760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words, the GPL is well suited for use as a marketing weapon, potentially reducing overall economic benefit and contributing to monopolistic behavior".@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10311770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It's not clear that there are any cases of this happening in practice, however.@@@@1@14@@danf@17-8-2009
10311780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The GPL has no [[Indemnity|indemnification]] clause explicitly protecting maintainers and developers from litigation resulting from unscrupulous contribution.@@@@1@17@@danf@17-8-2009
10311790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(If a developer submits existing patented or copyright work to a GPL project claiming it as their own contribution, all the project maintainers and even other developers can be held legally responsible for damages to the copyright or patent holder.)@@@@1@40@@danf@17-8-2009
10311800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Lack of indemnification is one criticism that lead Mozilla to create the [[Mozilla Public License]] rather than use the GPL or LGPL.@@@@1@22@@danf@17-8-2009
10311810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, Mozilla later relicensed their work under a GPL/LGPL/MPL triple license, due to problems with the GPL-incompatibility of the MPL.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10311820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some software developers have found the extensive scope of the GPL to be too restrictive.@@@@1@15@@danf@17-8-2009
10311830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, Bjørn Reese and Daniel Stenberg describe how the downstream effects of the GPL on later developers creates a "quodque pro quo" (Latin, "Everything in return for something").@@@@1@29@@danf@17-8-2009
10311840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For that reason, in 2001 they abandoned the GPLv2 in favor of less restrictive copyleft licenses.@@@@1@16@@danf@17-8-2009
10311850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A more specific example of the downstream effects of the GPL can be observed through the frame of incompatible licenses.@@@@1@20@@danf@17-8-2009
10311860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sun Microsystems' ZFS, because it is licensed under the GPL-incompatible CDDL and covered by several Sun patents, cannot link to the GPL-licensed linux kernel.@@@@1@24@@danf@17-8-2009
10311870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some have also argued that the GPL could, and should, be shorter.@@@@1@12@@danf@17-8-2009