1000003300010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δGoogleδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Google Inc.∗⌋ (⌊>NASDAQ>⌋: ⌊> GOOG>⌋ and ⌊>LSE>⌋: ⌊> GGEA>⌋ ) is an ⌊>American>⌋ ⌊>public corporation>⌋, earning revenue from ⌊>advertising>⌋ related to its ⌊>Internet search>⌋, ⌊>web-based e-mail>⌋, ⌊>online mapping>⌋, ⌊>office productivity>⌋, ⌊>social networking>⌋, and ⌊>video sharing>⌋ services as well as selling advertising-free versions of the ⌊>same technologies>⌋.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's headquarters, the ⌊>Googleplex>⌋, is located in ⌊>Mountain View, California>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of ⌊>June 30>⌋ ⌊>2008>⌋ the company has 19,604 full-time employees.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of ⌊>October 31>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋, it is the largest American company (by ⌊>market capitalization>⌋) that is not part of the ⌊>Dow Jones Industrial Average>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google was co-founded by ⌊>Larry Page>⌋ and ⌊>Sergey Brin>⌋ while they were students at ⌊>Stanford University>⌋ and the company was first incorporated as a ⌊>privately held company>⌋ on ⌊>September 7>⌋, ⌊>1998>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's ⌊>initial public offering>⌋ took place on ⌊>August 19>⌋, ⌊>2004>⌋, raising ⌊>US$>⌋1.67 billion, making it worth US$23 billion.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has continued its growth through a series of new product developments, ⌊>acquisitions>⌋, and ⌊>partnerships>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Environmentalism>⌋, ⌊>philanthropy>⌋, and ⌊>positive employee relations>⌋ have been important tenets during Google's growth, the latter resulting in being identified multiple times as ⌊>Fortune Magazine's>⌋ #1 Best Place to Work.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company's unofficial slogan is "⌊>Don't be evil>⌋", although ⌊>criticism of Google>⌋ include concerns regarding the ⌊>privacy>⌋ of personal information, ⌊>copyright>⌋, ⌊>censorship>⌋, and discontinuation of services.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google began in January 1996, as a research project by ⌊>Larry Page>⌋, who was soon joined by ⌊>Sergey Brin>⌋, two ⌊>Ph.D.>⌋ students at ⌊>Stanford University>⌋ in ⌊>California>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They hypothesized that a search engine that analyzed the relationships between websites would produce better ranking of results than existing techniques, which ranked results according to the number of times the search term appeared on a page.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Their search engine was originally nicknamed "BackRub" because the system checked ⌊>backlinks>⌋ to estimate a site's importance.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A small search engine called Rankdex was already exploring a similar strategy.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other highly relevant web pages must be the most relevant pages associated with the search, Page and Brin tested their thesis as part of their studies, and laid the foundation for their search engine.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Originally, the search engine used the ⌊>Stanford University>⌋ website with the domain ⌊/google.stanford.edu/⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The domain ⌊/google.com/⌋ was registered on ⌊>September 15>⌋, ⌊>1997>⌋, and the company was incorporated as ⌊/Google Inc./⌋ on ⌊>September 7>⌋, ⌊>1998>⌋ at a friend's garage in ⌊>Menlo Park, California>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The total initial investment raised for the new company amounted to almost US$1.1 million, including a US$100,000 check by ⌊>Andy Bechtolsheim>⌋, one of the founders of ⌊>Sun Microsystems>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In March 1999, the company moved into offices in ⌊>Palo Alto>⌋, home to several other noted ⌊>Silicon Valley>⌋ technology startups.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After quickly outgrowing two other sites, the company leased a complex of buildings in ⌊>Mountain View>⌋ at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway from ⌊>Silicon Graphics>⌋ (SGI) in 2003.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company has remained at this location ever since, and the complex has since come to be known as the ⌊>Googleplex>⌋ (a play on the word ⌊>googolplex>⌋).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, Google bought the property from SGI for US$319 million.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Google search engine attracted a loyal following among the growing number of Internet users, who liked its simple design and usability.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2000, Google began selling ⌊>advertisements>⌋ associated with search ⌊>keywords>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ads were text-based to maintain an uncluttered page design and to maximize page loading speed.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Keywords were sold based on a combination of price bid and clickthroughs, with bidding starting at US$.05 per click.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This model of selling keyword advertising was pioneered by ⌊>Goto.com>⌋ (later renamed Overture Services, before being acquired by ⌊>Yahoo!>⌋ and rebranded as ⌊>Yahoo! Search Marketing>⌋).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While many of its ⌊>dot-com>⌋ rivals failed in the new Internet marketplace, Google quietly rose in stature while generating revenue.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The name "Google" originated from a common misspelling of the word "⌊>googol>⌋", which refers to 10⌊^100^⌋, the number represented by a 1 followed by one hundred zeros.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Having found its way increasingly into everyday language, the verb "⌊>google>⌋", was added to the ⌊/⌊>Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary>⌋/⌋ and the ⌊/⌊>Oxford English Dictionary>⌋/⌋ in 2006, meaning "to use the Google search engine to obtain information on the Internet."@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>patent>⌋ describing part of Google's ranking mechanism (⌊>PageRank>⌋) was granted on ⌊>September 4>⌋, ⌊>2001>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The patent was officially assigned to Stanford University and lists Lawrence Page as the inventor.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Financing and initial public offering¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first funding for Google as a company was secured in 1998, in the form of a US$100,000 contribution from ⌊>Andy Bechtolsheim>⌋, co-founder of ⌊>Sun Microsystems>⌋, given to a corporation which did not yet exist.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Around six months later, a much larger round of funding was announced, with the major investors being rival venture capital firms ⌊>Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers>⌋ and ⌊>Sequoia Capital>⌋.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's ⌊>IPO>⌋ took place on ⌊>August 19>⌋, ⌊>2004>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@19,605,052 ⌊>shares>⌋ were offered at a price of US$85 per share.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of that, 14,142,135 (another mathematical reference as ⌊>√2>⌋ ≈ 1.4142135) were floated by Google, and the remaining 5,462,917 were offered by existing stockholders.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The sale of US$1.67 billion gave Google a ⌊>market capitalization>⌋ of more than US$23 billion.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The vast majority of Google's 271 million shares remained under Google's control.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of Google's employees became instant ⌊>paper millionaires>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Yahoo!>⌋, a competitor of Google, also benefited from the IPO because it owned 8.4 million shares of Google as of ⌊>August 9>⌋, ⌊>2004>⌋, ten days before the IPO.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's stock performance after its first IPO launch has gone well, with shares hitting US$700 for the first time on ⌊>October 31>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋, due to strong sales and earnings in the advertising market, as well as the release of new features such as the ⌊>desktop search function>⌋ and its iGoogle personalized home page.@@@@1@53@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The surge in stock price is fueled primarily by individual investors, as opposed to large institutional investors and ⌊>mutual fund>⌋s.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company is listed on the ⌊>NASDAQ>⌋ stock exchange under the ⌊>ticker>⌋ symbol ⌊∗GOOG∗⌋ and under the ⌊>London Stock Exchange>⌋ under the ticker symbol ⌊∗GGEA∗⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Growth¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the company's primary business interest is in the web content arena, Google has begun experimenting with other markets, such as ⌊>radio>⌋ and print publications.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>January 17>⌋, ⌊>2006>⌋, Google announced that its purchase of a radio advertising company "dMarc", which provides an automated system that allows companies to advertise on the radio.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This will allow Google to combine two niche advertising media—the Internet and radio—with Google's ability to laser-focus on the tastes of consumers.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also begun an experiment in selling advertisements from its advertisers in offline newspapers and magazines, with select advertisements in the ⌊>Chicago Sun-Times>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They have been filling unsold space in the newspaper that would have normally been used for in-house advertisements.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google was added to the ⌊>S&P 500 index>⌋ on ⌊>March 30>⌋, ⌊>2006>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It replaced ⌊>Burlington Resources>⌋, a major oil producer based in ⌊>Houston>⌋ which was acquired by ⌊>ConocoPhillips>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Acquisitions¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since 2001, Google has acquired several small start-up companies, often consisting of innovative teams and products.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the earlier companies that Google bought was ⌊>Pyra Labs>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They were the creators of ⌊>Blogger>⌋, a weblog publishing platform, first launched in 1999.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This acquisition led to many premium features becoming free.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Pyra Labs was originally formed by ⌊>Evan Williams>⌋, yet he left Google in 2004.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In early 2006, Google acquired Upstartle, a company responsible for the online word processor, ⌊>Writely>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The technology in this product was used by Google to eventually create ⌊>Google Docs & Spreadsheets>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, Google acquired a company called ⌊>Keyhole, Inc.>⌋, which developed a product called ⌊/Earth Viewer/⌋ which was renamed in 2005 to ⌊>Google Earth>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In February 2006, software company Adaptive Path sold Measure Map, a ⌊>weblog>⌋ statistics application, to Google.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Registration to the service has since been temporarily disabled.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The last update regarding the future of Measure Map was made on ⌊>April 6>⌋, ⌊>2006>⌋ and outlined many of the service's known issues.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In late 2006, Google bought online video site ⌊>YouTube>⌋ for US$1.65 billion in stock.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Shortly after, on ⌊>October 31>⌋, ⌊>2006>⌋, Google announced that it had also acquired ⌊>JotSpot>⌋, a developer of wiki technology for collaborative Web sites.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>April 13>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋, Google reached an agreement to acquire ⌊>DoubleClick>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google agreed to buy the company for US$3.1 billion.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>July 9>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋, Google announced that it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire enterprise messaging security and compliance company ⌊>Postini>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Partnerships¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, Google entered into partnerships with other companies and government agencies to improve production and services.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google announced a partnership with ⌊>NASA Ames Research Center>⌋ to build up ⌊λ1000000 square feet (93000 m²)¦1000000¦sqft¦m2¦-3¦Convertλ⌋ of offices and work on research projects involving large-scale data management, ⌊>nanotechnology>⌋, ⌊>distributed computing>⌋, and the entrepreneurial space industry.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google also entered into a partnership with ⌊>Sun Microsystems>⌋ in October to help share and distribute each other's technologies.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company entered into a partnership with ⌊>Time Warner>⌋'s ⌊>AOL>⌋, to enhance each other's video search services.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same year, the company became a major financial investor of the new ⌊>.mobi>⌋ ⌊>top-level domain>⌋ for mobile devices, in conjunction with several other companies, including ⌊>Microsoft>⌋, ⌊>Nokia>⌋, and ⌊>Ericsson>⌋ among others.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In September 2007, Google launched, "Adsense for Mobile", a service for its publishing partners which provides the ability to monetize their mobile websites through the targeted placement of mobile text ads, and acquired the mobile social networking site, ⌊/Zingku.mobi/⌋, to "provide people worldwide with direct access to Google applications, and ultimately the information they want and need, right from their mobile devices."@@@@1@62@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, Google and ⌊>News Corp.>⌋'s Fox Interactive Media entered into a US$900 million agreement to provide search and advertising on the popular social networking site, ⌊>MySpace>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On November 5, 2007 Google announced the ⌊>Open Handset Alliance>⌋ to develop an open platform for mobile services called ⌊>Android>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On March,2008 Google, ⌊>Sprint>⌋, ⌊>Intel>⌋, ⌊>Comcast>⌋, ⌊>Time Warner Cable>⌋,⌊>Bright House Networks>⌋,⌊>Clearwire>⌋ together found ⌊>Xohm>⌋ to provide wireless ⌊>telecommunication>⌋ service.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Products and services¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has created services and tools for the general public and business environment alike; including Web applications, advertising networks and solutions for businesses.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Advertising¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of Google's revenue is derived from advertising programs.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For the 2006 fiscal year, the company reported US$10.492 billion in total advertising revenues and only US$112 million in licensing and other revenues.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google ⌊>AdWords>⌋ allows Web advertisers to display advertisements in Google's search results and the Google Content Network, through either a cost-per-click or cost-per-view scheme.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google ⌊>AdSense>⌋ website owners can also display adverts on their own site, and earn money every time ads are clicked.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Web-based software¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Google web search engine>⌋ is the company's most popular service.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of August 2007, Google is the most used ⌊>search engine>⌋ on the web with a 53.6% market share, ahead of ⌊>Yahoo!>⌋ (19.9%) and ⌊>Live Search>⌋ (12.9%).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google indexes billions of Web pages, so that users can search for the information they desire, through the use of ⌊>keywords>⌋ and ⌊>operators>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also employed the Web Search technology into other search services, including Image Search, ⌊>Google News>⌋, the price comparison site ⌊>Google Product Search>⌋, the interactive ⌊>Usenet>⌋ archive ⌊>Google Groups>⌋, ⌊>Google Maps>⌋, and more.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, Google launched its own free web-based e-mail service, known as ⌊>Gmail>⌋ (or Google Mail in some jurisdictions).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Gmail features ⌊>spam-filtering technology>⌋ and the capability to use Google technology to search e-mail.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The service generates revenue by displaying advertisements and links from the ⌊>AdWords>⌋ service that are tailored to the choice of the user and/or content of the e-mail messages displayed on screen.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In early 2006, the company launched ⌊>Google Video>⌋, which not only allows users to search and view freely available videos but also offers users and media publishers the ability to publish their content, including television shows on ⌊>CBS>⌋, ⌊>NBA>⌋ basketball games, and music videos.@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In August 2007, Google announced that it would shut down its video rental and sale program and offer refunds and ⌊>Google Checkout>⌋ credits to consumers who had purchased videos to own.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003300990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>February 28>⌋, ⌊>2008>⌋ Google launched the ⌊>Google Sites>⌋ ⌊>wiki>⌋ as a ⌊>Google Apps>⌋ component.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also developed several desktop applications, including ⌊>Google Earth>⌋, an interactive mapping program powered by satellite and aerial imagery that covers the vast majority of the planet.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google Earth is generally considered to be remarkably accurate and extremely detailed.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many major cities have such detailed images that one can zoom in close enough to see vehicles and pedestrians clearly.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Consequently, there have been some concerns about national security implications.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Specifically, some countries and militaries contend the software can be used to pinpoint with near-precision accuracy the physical location of critical infrastructure, commercial and residential buildings, bases, government agencies, and so on.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the satellite images are not necessarily frequently updated, and all of them are available at no charge through other products and even government sources.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊>NASA>⌋ and the ⌊>National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some counter this argument by stating that Google Earth makes it easier to access and research the images.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many other products are available through ⌊>Google Labs>⌋, which is a collection of incomplete applications that are still being tested for use by the general public.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has promoted their products in various ways.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>London>⌋, ⌊/Google Space/⌋ was set-up in ⌊>Heathrow Airport>⌋, showcasing several products, including Gmail, Google Earth and Picasa.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, a similar page was launched for American college students, under the name ⌊/College Life, Powered by Google./⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007, some reports surfaced that Google was planning the release of its own mobile phone, possibly a competitor to ⌊>Apple>⌋'s ⌊>iPhone>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The project, called ⌊>Android>⌋ provides a standard development kit that will allow any "Android" phone to run software developed for the Android SDK, no matter the phone manufacturer.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In October 2007, Google SMS service was launched in ⌊>India>⌋ allowing users to get business listings, movie showtimes, and information by sending an ⌊>SMS>⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Enterprise products¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007, Google launched ⌊>Google Apps Premier Edition>⌋, a version of Google Apps targeted primarily at the business user.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It includes such extras as more disk space for e-mail, API access, and premium support, for a price of US$50 per user per year.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A large implementation of Google Apps with 38,000 users is at ⌊>Lakehead University>⌋ in ⌊>Thunder Bay>⌋, Ontario, Canada.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Platform¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google runs its services on several ⌊>server farm>⌋s, each comprising thousands of low-cost commodity computers running stripped-down versions of ⌊>Linux>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While the company divulges no details of its hardware, a 2006 estimate cites 450,000 servers, "racked up in clusters at data centers around the world."@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Corporate affairs and culture¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google is known for its relaxed corporate culture, of which its playful variations on ⌊>its own corporate logo>⌋ are an indicator.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007 and 2008, ⌊/⌊>Fortune Magazine>⌋/⌋ placed Google at the top of its list of the hundred best places to work.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's corporate philosophy embodies such casual principles as "you can make money without doing evil," "you can be serious without a suit," and "work should be challenging and the challenge should be fun."@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has been criticized for having salaries below industry standards.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, some ⌊>system administrator>⌋s earn no more than US$35,000 per year – considered to be quite low for the ⌊>Bay Area>⌋ job market.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, Google's stock performance following its ⌊>IPO>⌋ has enabled many early employees to be competitively compensated by participation in the corporation's remarkable equity growth.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google implemented other employee incentives in 2005, such as the ⌊>Google Founders' Award>⌋, in addition to offering higher salaries to new employees.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's workplace amenities, culture, global popularity, and strong brand recognition have also attracted potential applicants.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the company's ⌊>IPO>⌋ in August 2004, it was reported that founders ⌊>Sergey Brin>⌋ and ⌊>Larry Page>⌋, and CEO ⌊>Eric Schmidt>⌋, requested that their base salary be cut to US$1.00.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Subsequent offers by the company to increase their salaries have been turned down, primarily because, "their primary compensation continues to come from returns on their ownership stakes in Google.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As significant stockholders, their personal wealth is tied directly to sustained stock price appreciation and performance, which provides direct alignment with stockholder interests."@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Prior to 2004, Schmidt was making US$250,000 per year, and Page and Brin each earned a salary of US$150,000.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They have all declined recent offers of bonuses and increases in compensation by Google's board of directors.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a 2007 report of the United States' richest people, ⌊>Forbes>⌋ reported that ⌊>Sergey Brin>⌋ and ⌊>Larry Page>⌋ were tied for #5 with a net worth of US$18.5 billion each.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007 and through early 2008, Google has seen the departure of several top executives.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Justin Rosenstein, Google’s product manager, left in June of 2007.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Shortly thereafter, Gideon Yu, former chief financial officer of ⌊>YouTube>⌋, a Google unit, joined ⌊>Facebook>⌋ along with Benjamin Ling, a high-ranking engineer, who left in October 2007.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In March 2008, two senior Google leaders announced their desire to pursue other opportunities.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sheryl Sandburg, ex-VP of global online sales and operations began her position as COO of ⌊>Facebook>⌋ while Ash ElDifrawi, former head of brand advertising, left to become CMO of ⌊>Netshops>⌋ Inc.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Googleplex¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's headquarters in Mountain View, California, is referred to as "the ⌊>Googleplex>⌋" in a play of words; a ⌊>googolplex>⌋ being 1 followed by a googol of zeros, and the HQ being a ⌊>complex>⌋ of buildings (cf. ⌊>multiplex>⌋, cineplex, etc).@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The lobby is decorated with a ⌊>piano>⌋, ⌊>lava lamps>⌋, old server clusters, and a projection of search queries on the wall.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The hallways are full of exercise balls and ⌊>bicycle>⌋s.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each employee has access to the corporate recreation center.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Recreational amenities are scattered throughout the campus and include a workout room with weights and rowing machines, locker rooms, washers and dryers, a massage room, assorted ⌊>video game>⌋s, ⌊>Foosball>⌋, a ⌊>baby grand piano>⌋, a pool table, and ⌊>ping pong>⌋.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to the ⌊>rec room>⌋, there are snack rooms stocked with various foods and drinks.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, Google moved into ⌊λ311000 square feet (28900 m²)¦311000¦sqft¦m2¦-2¦Convertλ⌋ of office space in ⌊>New York City>⌋, at 111 ⌊>Eighth Ave.>⌋ in Manhattan.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The office was specially designed and built for Google and houses its largest advertising sales team, which has been instrumental in securing large partnerships, most recently deals with ⌊>MySpace>⌋ and ⌊>AOL>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2003, they added an engineering staff in New York City, which has been responsible for more than 100 engineering projects, including ⌊>Google Maps>⌋, ⌊>Google Spreadsheet>⌋s, and others.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is estimated that the building costs Google US$10 million per year to rent and is similar in design and functionality to its ⌊>Mountain View>⌋ headquarters, including ⌊>foosball>⌋, ⌊>air hockey>⌋, and ping-pong tables, as well as a video game area.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In November 2006, Google opened offices on ⌊>Carnegie Mellon>⌋'s campus in ⌊>Pittsburgh>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By late 2006, Google also established a new headquarters for its AdWords division in ⌊>Ann Arbor, Michigan>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The size of Google's search system is presently undisclosed.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The best estimates place the total number of the company's servers at 450,000, spread over twenty five locations throughout the world, including major ⌊>operations centers>⌋ in ⌊>Dublin>⌋ (European Operations ⌊>Headquarters>⌋) and ⌊>Atlanta, Georgia>⌋.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google is also in the process of constructing a major operations center in ⌊>The Dalles, Oregon>⌋, on the banks of the ⌊>Columbia River>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The site, also referred to by the media as ⌊/Project 02/⌋, was chosen due to the availability of inexpensive ⌊>hydroelectric power>⌋ and a large surplus of ⌊>fiber optic>⌋ cable, remnants of the dot com boom of the late 1990s.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The computing center is estimated to be the size of two ⌊>football fields>⌋, and it has created hundreds of construction jobs, causing local real estate prices to increase 40%.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Upon completion, the center is expected to create 60 to 200 permanent jobs in the town of 12,000 people.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google is taking steps to ensure that their operations are environmentally sound.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In October 2006, the company announced plans to install thousands of ⌊>solar panels>⌋ to provide up to 1.6 ⌊>megawatt>⌋s of ⌊>electricity>⌋, enough to satisfy approximately 30% of the campus' energy needs.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The system will be the largest solar power system constructed on a ⌊>U.S.>⌋ corporate campus and one of the largest on any corporate site in the world.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In June 2007, Google announced that they plan to become ⌊>carbon neutral>⌋ by 2008, which includes investing in energy efficiency, renewable energy sources, and purchasing carbon offsets, such as investing in projects like capturing and burning ⌊>methane>⌋ from animal waste at Mexican and Brazilian farms.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Innovation time off¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As an interesting motivation technique (usually called ⌊>Innovation Time Off>⌋), all Google engineers are encouraged to spend 20% of their work time (one day per week) on projects that interest them.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of Google's newer services, such as ⌊>Gmail>⌋, ⌊>Google News>⌋, ⌊>Orkut>⌋, and ⌊>AdSense>⌋ originated from these independent endeavors.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a talk at ⌊>Stanford University>⌋, ⌊>Marissa Mayer>⌋, Google's Vice President of Search Products and User Experience, stated that her analysis showed that half of the new product launches originated from the 20% time.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Easter eggs and April Fool's Day jokes¦3=⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has a tradition of creating ⌊>April Fool's Day>⌋ jokes—such as ⌊>Google MentalPlex>⌋, which allegedly featured the use of mental power to search the web.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2002, they claimed that ⌊>pigeons>⌋ were the ⌊>secret>⌋ behind their growing ⌊>search engine>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, they featured ⌊>Google Lunar>⌋ (which claimed to feature jobs on the ⌊>moon>⌋), and in 2005, a ⌊>fictitious>⌋ brain-boosting drink, termed ⌊>Google Gulp>⌋ was announced.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2006, they came up with ⌊>Google Romance>⌋, a hypothetical ⌊>online dating>⌋ service.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007, Google announced two joke products.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first was a free wireless Internet service called ⌊>TiSP>⌋ (Toilet Internet Service Provider) in which one obtained a connection by flushing one end of a ⌊>fiber-optic>⌋ cable down their toilet and waiting only an hour for a "Plumbing Hardware Dispatcher (PHD)" to connect it to the Internet.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Additionally, Google's ⌊>Gmail>⌋ page displayed an announcement for ⌊>Gmail Paper>⌋, which allows users of their free email service to have email messages printed and shipped to a snail mail address.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's services contain a number of ⌊>Easter eggs>⌋; for instance, the Language Tools page offers the search interface in the ⌊>Swedish Chef>⌋'s "Bork bork bork," ⌊>Pig Latin>⌋, ”Hacker” (actually ⌊>leetspeak>⌋), ⌊>Elmer Fudd>⌋, and ⌊>Klingon>⌋.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, the search engine calculator provides the ⌊>Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything>⌋ from ⌊>Douglas Adams>⌋' ⌊/⌊>The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy>⌋/⌋.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As Google's search box can be used as a unit converter (as well as a calculator), some non-standard units are built in, such as the ⌊>Smoot>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google also routinely modifies its logo in accordance with various holidays or special events throughout the year, such as ⌊>Christmas>⌋, ⌊>Mother's Day>⌋, or the ⌊>birthday>⌋s of various notable individuals.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=IPO and culture¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many people speculated that Google's ⌊>IPO>⌋ would inevitably lead to changes in the company's culture, because of shareholder pressure for employee benefit reductions and short-term advances, or because a large number of the company's employees would suddenly become millionaires on paper.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a report given to potential investors, co-founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page promised that the IPO would not change the company's culture.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Later Mr. Page said, "We think a lot about how to maintain our culture and the fun elements.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We spent a lot of time getting our offices right.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We think it's important to have a high density of people.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@People are packed together everywhere.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We all share offices.@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@We like this set of buildings because it's more like a densely packed university campus than a typical suburban office park."@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, many analysts are finding that as Google grows, the company is becoming more "corporate".@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2005, articles in ⌊/⌊>The New York Times>⌋/⌋ and other sources began suggesting that Google had lost its anti-corporate, no evil philosophy.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In an effort to maintain the company's unique culture, Google has designated a Chief Culture Officer in 2006, who also serves as the Director of Human Resources.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The purpose of the Chief Culture Officer is to develop and maintain the culture and work on ways to keep true to the core values that the company was founded on in the beginning—a flat organization, a lack of hierarchy, a collaborative environment.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Philanthropy¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, Google formed a for-profit philanthropic wing, ⌊>Google.org>⌋, with a start-up fund of US$1 billion.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The express mission of the organization is to create awareness about ⌊>climate change>⌋, global public health, and ⌊>global poverty>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of its first projects is to develop a viable ⌊>plug-in hybrid>⌋ ⌊>electric vehicle>⌋ that can attain 100 ⌊>mpg>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The founding and current director is Dr. ⌊>Larry Brilliant>⌋.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003301990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Criticism¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As it has grown, Google has found itself the focus of several controversies related to its business practices and services.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊>Google Book Search>⌋'s effort to digitize millions of books and make the full text searchable has led to ⌊>copyright>⌋ disputes with the ⌊>Authors Guild>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's cooperation with the governments of ⌊>China>⌋, and to a lesser extent ⌊>France>⌋ and ⌊>Germany>⌋ (regarding ⌊>Holocaust denial>⌋) to filter search results in accordance to regional laws and regulations has led to claims of ⌊>censorship>⌋.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google's persistent ⌊>cookie>⌋ and other information collection practices have led to concerns over user ⌊>privacy>⌋.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of ⌊>December 11>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋, Google, like the ⌊>Microsoft>⌋ search engine, stores "personal information for 18 months" and by comparison, ⌊>Yahoo!>⌋ and ⌊>AOL>⌋ (⌊>Time Warner>⌋) "retain search requests for 13 months."@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A number of ⌊>India>⌋n state governments have raised concerns about the security risks posed by geographic details provided by ⌊>Google Earth>⌋'s satellite imaging.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also been criticized by advertisers regarding its inability to combat ⌊>click fraud>⌋, when a person or automated script is used to generate a charge on an advertisement without really having an interest in the product.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Industry reports in 2006 claim that approximately 14 to 20 percent of clicks were in fact fraudulent or invalid.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Further, Google has faced allegations of ⌊>sexism>⌋ and ⌊>ageism>⌋ from former employees.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google has also faced accusations in ⌊>Harper's Magazine>⌋ of being extremely excessive with their energy usage, and were accused of employing their "⌊>Don't be evil>⌋" motto as well as their very public energy saving campaigns as means of trying to cover up or make up for the massive amounts of energy their servers actually require.@@@@1@55@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, US District Court Judge ⌊>Louis Stanton>⌋, on ⌊>July 1>⌋, 2008 ordered Google to give ⌊>YouTube>⌋ user data / log to ⌊>Viacom>⌋ to support its case in a billion-dollar ⌊>copyright>⌋ lawsuit against Google.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google and ⌊>Viacom>⌋, however, on ⌊>July 14>⌋, 2008, agreed in ⌊>compromise>⌋ to protect ⌊>YouTube>⌋ users' personal data in the $ 1 billion (£ 497 million) copyright lawsuit.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google agreed it will make user information and internet protocol addresses from its YouTube subsidiary anonymous before handing over the data to Viacom.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The privacy deal also applied to other litigants including the ⌊>FA Premier League>⌋, the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organisation and the ⌊>Scottish Premier League>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The deal however did not extend the anonymity to employees, since Viacom would prove that Google staff are aware of uploading of illegal material to the site.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003302150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The parties therefore will further meet on the matter lest the data be made available to the court.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δGoogle Translateδ⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Google Translate∗⌋ is a service provided by ⌊>Google Inc.>⌋ to translate a section of text, or a webpage, into another language, with limits to the number of paragraphs, or range of technical terms, translated.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For some languages, users are asked for alternate translations, such as for technical terms, to be included for future updates to the translation process.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Unlike other translation services such as ⌊>Babel Fish>⌋, ⌊>AOL>⌋, and ⌊>Yahoo>⌋ which use ⌊>SYSTRAN>⌋, Google uses its own translation software.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Functions¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The service also includes translation of an entire Web page.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The translation is limited in number of paragraphs per webpage (such as indicated by break-tags ⌊◊<br>◊⌋); however, if text on a webpage is separated by horizontal blank-line images (auto-wrapped without using any ⌊◊<br>◊⌋), a long webpage can be translated containing several thousand words.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google Translate, like other automatic translation tools, has its limitations.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@While it can help the reader to understand the general content of a foreign language text, it does not deliver accurate translations and does not produce publication-standard content, for example it often translates words out of context and is deliberately not applying any ⌊>grammatical>⌋ rules.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Approach¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google translate is based on an approach called ⌊>statistical machine translation>⌋, and more specifically, on research by ⌊>Franz-Josef Och>⌋ who won the ⌊>DARPA>⌋ contest for speed machine translation in 2003.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Och is now the head of Google's machine translation department.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to Och, a solid base for developing a usable statistical machine translation system for a new pair of languages from scratch, would consist in having a bilingual ⌊>text corpus>⌋ (or ⌊>parallel collection>⌋) of more than a million words and two monolingual corpora of each more than a billion words.@@@@1@50@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Statistical ⌊>models>⌋ from this data are then used to translate between those languages.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To acquire this huge amount of linguistic data, Google used ⌊>United Nations>⌋ documents.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same document is normally available in all six official UN languages, thus Google now has a hectalingual corpus of 20 billion words' worth of human translations.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The availability of Arabic and Chinese as official UN languages is probably one of the reasons why Google Translate initially focused on the development of translation between English and those languages, and not, for example, ⌊>Japanese>⌋ and ⌊>German>⌋, which are not official languages at the UN.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Google representatives have been very active at domestic conferences in Japan in the field asking researchers to provide them with bilingual corpora.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Options¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(by chronological order)@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Beginning@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English to Arabic#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#English to French#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#English to German#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#English to Spanish#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#French to English#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#German to English#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Spanish to English#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Arabic to English#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#2nd stage@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English to Portuguese#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Portuguese to English#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#3rd stage@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English to Italian#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Italian to English#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#4th stage@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English to Chinese (Simplified) BETA#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#English to Japanese BETA#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#English to Korean BETA#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Chinese (Simplified) to English BETA#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Japanese to English BETA#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Korean to English BETA#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#5th stage@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English to Russian BETA#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Russian to English BETA#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#6th stage@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English to Arabic BETA#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Arabic to English BETA#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#7th stage (launched February, 2007)@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English to Chinese (Traditional) BETA#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Chinese (Traditional) to English BETA#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Chinese (Simplified to Traditional) BETA#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Chinese (Traditional to Simplified) BETA#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#8th stage (launched October, 2007)@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#all 25 language pairs use Google's machine translation system#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#9th stage@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#English to Hindi BETA#⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Hindi to English BETA#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#10th stage (as of this stage, translation can be done between any two languages)@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Bulgarian#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Croatian#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Czech#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Danish#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Dutch#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Finnish#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Greek#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Norwegian#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Polish#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Romanian#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003400700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Swedish#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δGrammarδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Grammar∗⌋ is the field of ⌊>linguistics>⌋ that covers the ⌊>rules>⌋ governing the use of any given ⌊>natural language>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It includes ⌊>morphology>⌋ and ⌊>syntax>⌋, often complemented by ⌊>phonetics>⌋, ⌊>phonology>⌋, ⌊>semantics>⌋, and ⌊>pragmatics>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each language has its own distinct grammar.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"English grammar" is the rules of the English language itself.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"⌊/An/⌋ English grammar" is a specific study or analysis of these rules.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊>reference book>⌋ describing the grammar of a language is called a "reference grammar" or simply "a grammar".@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A fully explicit grammar exhaustively describing the ⌊>grammatical>⌋ constructions of a language is called a descriptive grammar, as opposed to ⌊>linguistic prescription>⌋ which tries to enforce the governing rules how a language is to be used.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Grammatical framework>⌋s are approaches to constructing grammars.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The standard framework of ⌊>generative grammar>⌋ is the ⌊>transformational grammar>⌋ model developed by ⌊>Noam Chomsky>⌋ and his followers from the 1950s to 1980s.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Etymology¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The word "grammar," derives from ⌊>Greek>⌋ ⌊/γραμματική τέχνη/⌋ (⌊/grammatike techne/⌋), which means "art of letters," from ⌊/γράμμα/⌋ (⌊/gramma/⌋), "letter," and that from ⌊/γράφειν/⌋ (⌊/graphein/⌋), "to draw, to write".@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first systematic grammars originate in ⌊>Iron Age India>⌋, with ⌊>Panini>⌋ (4th c. BC) and his commentators ⌊>Pingala>⌋ (ca. 200 BC), ⌊>Katyayana>⌋, and ⌊>Patanjali>⌋ (2nd c. BC).@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the West, grammar emerges as a discipline in ⌊>Hellenism>⌋ from the 3rd c. BC forward with authors like ⌊>Rhyanus>⌋ and ⌊>Aristarchus of Samothrace>⌋, the oldest extant work being the ⌊/⌊>Art of Grammar>⌋/⌋ (⌊λΤέχνη Γραμματική¦grc¦Τέχνη Γραμματική¦Langλ⌋), attributed to ⌊>Dionysius Thrax>⌋ (ca. 100 BC).@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Latin grammar>⌋ developed by following Greek models from the 1st century BC, due to the work of authors such as ⌊>Orbilius Pupillus>⌋, ⌊>Remmius Palaemon>⌋, ⌊>Marcus Valerius Probus>⌋, ⌊>Verrius Flaccus>⌋, ⌊>Aemilius Asper>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tamil grammatical tradition also began around the 1st century BC with the ⌊>Tolkāppiyam>⌋.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A grammar of ⌊>Irish>⌋ originated in the 7th century with the ⌊>Auraicept na n-Éces>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Arabic grammar>⌋ emerges from the 8th century with the work of ⌊>Ibn Abi Ishaq>⌋ and his students.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first treatises on ⌊>Hebrew grammar>⌋ appear in the ⌊>High Middle Ages>⌋, in the context of ⌊>Mishnah>⌋ (exegesis of the ⌊>Hebrew Bible>⌋).@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Karaite>⌋ tradition originates in ⌊>Abbasid>⌋ ⌊>Baghdad>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊/⌊>Diqduq>⌋/⌋ (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Ibn Barun>⌋ in the 12th century compares the Hebrew language with ⌊>Arabic>⌋ in the ⌊>Islamic grammatical tradition>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Belonging to the ⌊/trivium/⌋ of the seven ⌊>liberal arts>⌋, grammar was taught as a core discipline throughout the ⌊>Middle Ages>⌋, following the influence of authors from ⌊>Late Antiquity>⌋, such as ⌊>Priscian>⌋.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Treatment of vernaculars begins gradually during the ⌊>High Middle Ages>⌋, with isolated works such as the ⌊>First Grammatical Treatise>⌋, but becomes influential only in the ⌊>Renaissance>⌋ and ⌊>Baroque>⌋ periods.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In ⌊>1486>⌋, ⌊>Antonio de Nebrija>⌋ published ⌊/Las introduciones Latinas contrapuesto el romance al Latin/⌋, and the first ⌊>Spanish grammar>⌋, ⌊/Gramática de la lengua castellana/⌋, in 1492.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During the 16th century ⌊>Italian Renaissance>⌋, the ⌊/Questione della lingua/⌋ was the discussion on the status and ideal form of the ⌊>Italian language>⌋, initiated by ⌊>Dante>⌋'s ⌊/⌊>de vulgari eloquentia>⌋/⌋ (⌊>Pietro Bembo>⌋, ⌊/Prose della volgar lingua/⌋ Venice 1525).@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Grammars of non-European languages began to be compiled for the purposes of ⌊>evangelization>⌋ and ⌊>Bible translation>⌋ from the 16th century onward, such as ⌊/Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de los Indios de los Reynos del Perú/⌋ (1560), and a ⌊>Quechua>⌋ grammar by ⌊>Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás>⌋.@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1643 there appeared ⌊>Ivan Uzhevych>⌋'s ⌊/Grammatica sclavonica/⌋ and, in 1762, the ⌊/Short Introduction to English Grammar/⌋ of ⌊>Robert Lowth>⌋ was also published.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊/Grammatisch-Kritisches Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart/⌋, a ⌊>High German>⌋ grammar in five volumes by ⌊>Johann Christoph Adelung>⌋, appeared as early as 1774.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern ⌊>linguistics>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Serbian grammar by ⌊>Vuk Stefanović Karadžić>⌋ arrived in 1814, while the ⌊/Deutsche Grammatik/⌋ of the ⌊>Brothers Grimm>⌋ was first published in 1818.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊/Comparative Grammar/⌋ of ⌊>Franz Bopp>⌋, the starting point of modern ⌊>comparative linguistics>⌋, came out in 1833.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the ⌊>USA>⌋, the Society for the Promotion of Good Grammar has designated March 4, 2008 as National Grammar Day.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Development of grammars¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Grammars evolve through usage, and grammars also develop due to separations of the human population.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the advent of written ⌊>representation>⌋s, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Formal grammars are ⌊>codifications>⌋ of usage that are developed by repeated documentation over time, and by ⌊>observation>⌋ as well.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As the rules become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This often creates a discrepancy between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted over time as being correct.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Linguists tend to believe that prescriptive grammars do not have any justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes; however, prescriptions are considered in ⌊>sociolinguistics>⌋ as part of the explanation for why some people say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the other depending on social context.@@@@1@54@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The formal study of grammar is an important part of ⌊>education>⌋ for children from a young age through advanced ⌊>learning>⌋, though the rules taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the sense most ⌊>linguists>⌋ use the term, as they are often ⌊>prescriptive>⌋ rather than ⌊>descriptive>⌋.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Constructed language>⌋s (also called planned languages or conlangs) are more common in the modern day.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many have been designed to aid human ⌊>communication>⌋ (for example, naturalistic ⌊>Interlingua>⌋, schematic ⌊>Esperanto>⌋, and the highly logic-compatible artificial language ⌊>Lojban>⌋).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each of these languages has its own grammar.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@No clear line can be drawn between syntax and morphology.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Analytic languages>⌋ use ⌊>syntax>⌋ to convey information that is encoded via ⌊>inflection>⌋ in ⌊>synthetic language>⌋s.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words, word order is not significant and ⌊>morphology>⌋ is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Chinese>⌋ and ⌊>Afrikaans>⌋, for example, are highly analytic, and meaning is therefore very context – dependent.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Both do have some inflections, and have had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more "purely" analytic over time.)@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Latin>⌋, which is highly ⌊>synthetic>⌋, uses ⌊>affix>⌋es and ⌊>inflection>⌋s to convey the same information that Chinese does with ⌊>syntax>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because Latin words are quite (though not completely) self-contained, an intelligible Latin ⌊>sentence>⌋ can be made from elements that are placed in a largely arbitrary order.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Latin has a complex affixation and a simple syntax, while Chinese has the opposite.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Grammar frameworks¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Various "grammar frameworks" have been developed in ⌊>theoretical linguistics>⌋ since the mid 20th century, in particular under the influence of the idea of a "⌊>Universal grammar>⌋" in the USA.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Of these, the main divisions are:@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Transformational grammar>⌋ (TG))#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Principles and Parameters Theory>⌋ (P&P)#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Lexical-functional Grammar>⌋ (LFG)#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar>⌋ (GPSG)#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar>⌋ (HPSG)#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Dependency grammar>⌋s (DG)#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003500630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Role and reference grammar>⌋ (RRG)#⌋•⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δHTMLδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗HTML∗⌋, an ⌊>initialism>⌋ of ⌊∗HyperText Markup Language∗⌋, is the predominant ⌊>markup language>⌋ for ⌊>web page>⌋s.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It provides a means to describe the structure of text-based information in a document — by denoting certain text as links, headings, paragraphs, lists, and so on — and to supplement that text with ⌊/interactive forms/⌋, embedded ⌊/images/⌋, and other objects.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML is written in the form of tags, surrounded by ⌊>angle brackets>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML can also describe, to some degree, the appearance and ⌊>semantics>⌋ of a document, and can include embedded ⌊>scripting language>⌋ code (such as JavaScript) which can affect the behavior of ⌊>Web browser>⌋s and other HTML processors.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML is also often used to refer to content in specific languages, such as a ⌊>MIME type>⌋ text/html, or even more broadly as a generic term for HTML, whether in its ⌊>XML>⌋-descended form (such as ⌊>XHTML>⌋ 1.0 and later) or its form descended directly from ⌊>SGML>⌋ (such as HTML 4.01 and earlier).@@@@1@52@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By convention, HTML format data files use a file extension .html or .htm.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History of HTML¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Origins¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1980, physicist ⌊>Tim Berners-Lee>⌋, who was an independent contractor at ⌊>CERN>⌋, proposed and prototyped ⌊>ENQUIRE>⌋, a system for CERN researchers to use and share documents.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1989, Berners-Lee and CERN data systems engineer ⌊>Robert Cailliau>⌋ each submitted separate proposals for an ⌊>Internet>⌋-based ⌊>hypertext>⌋ system providing similar functionality.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The following year, they collaborated on a joint proposal, the WorldWideWeb (W3) project, which was accepted by CERN.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=First specifications¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called ⌊/HTML Tags/⌋, first mentioned on the Internet by Berners-Lee in late 1991.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It describes 22 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Thirteen of these elements still exist in HTML 4.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Berners-Lee considered HTML to be, at the time, an application of ⌊>SGML>⌋, but it was not formally defined as such until the mid-1993 publication, by the ⌊>IETF>⌋, of the first proposal for an HTML specification: Berners-Lee and ⌊>Dan Connolly>⌋'s "Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)" Internet-Draft, which included an SGML ⌊>Document Type Definition>⌋ to define the grammar.@@@@1@55@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The draft expired after six months, but was notable for its acknowledgment of the ⌊>NCSA Mosaic>⌋ browser's custom tag for embedding in-line images, reflecting the IETF's philosophy of basing standards on successful prototypes.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, Dave Raggett's competing Internet-Draft, "HTML+ (Hypertext Markup Format)", from late 1993, suggested standardizing already-implemented features like tables and fill-out forms.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After the HTML and HTML+ drafts expired in early 1994, the IETF created an HTML Working Group, which in 1995 completed "HTML 2.0", the first HTML specification intended to be treated as a standard against which future implementations should be based.@@@@1@41@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Published as ⌊>Request for Comments>⌋ 1996, HTML 2.0 included ideas from the HTML and HTML+ drafts.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There was no "HTML 1.0"; the 2.0 designation was intended to distinguish the new edition from previous drafts.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Further development under the auspices of the IETF was stalled by competing interests.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since 1996, the HTML specifications have been maintained, with input from commercial software vendors, by the ⌊>World Wide Web Consortium>⌋ (W3C).@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, in 2000, HTML also became an international standard (⌊>ISO>⌋/⌊>IEC>⌋ 15445:2000).@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The last HTML specification published by the W3C is the HTML 4.01 Recommendation, published in late 1999.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Its issues and errors were last acknowledged by errata published in 2001.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Version history of the standard¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=HTML versions¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗July, 1993:∗⌋ ⌊> Hypertext Markup Language>⌋, was published at ⌊>IETF>⌋ working draft (that is, not yet a standard).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗November, 1995:∗⌋ ⌊> HTML 2.0>⌋ published as IETF ⌊>Request for Comments>⌋:@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#RFC 1866,#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#supplemented by RFC 1867 (form-based file upload) that same month,#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#RFC 1942 (tables) in ⌊/May 1996/⌋,#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#RFC 1980 (client-side image maps) in ⌊/August 1996/⌋, and#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#RFC 2070 (⌊>internationalization>⌋) in ⌊/January 1997/⌋;#⌋•⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Ultimately, all were declared obsolete/historic by RFC 2854 in ⌊/June 2000/⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗April 1995∗⌋: ⌊> HTML 3.0>⌋, proposed as a standard to the IETF.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It included many of the capabilities that were in Raggett's HTML+ proposal, such as support for tables, text flow around figures, and the display of complex mathematical formulas.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A demonstration appeared in W3C's own ⌊>Arena browser>⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML 3.0 did not succeed for several reasons.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The pace of browser development, as well as the number of interested parties, had outstripped the resources of the IETF.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Netscape continued to introduce HTML elements that specified the visual appearance of documents, contrary to the goals of the newly-formed W3C, which sought to limit HTML to describing logical structure.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Microsoft, a newcomer at the time, played to all sides by creating its own tags, implementing Netscape's elements for compatibility, and supporting W3C features such as Cascading Style Sheets.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊>January 14>⌋, ⌊>1997>⌋:∗⌋ ⌊> HTML 3.2>⌋, published as a ⌊>W3C Recommendation>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was the first version developed and standardized exclusively by the W3C, as the IETF had closed its HTML Working Group in September 1997.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The new version dropped math formulas entirely, reconciled overlap among various proprietary extensions, and adopted most of Netscape's visual markup tags.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Netscape's ⌊>blink element>⌋ and Microsoft's ⌊>marquee element>⌋ were omitted due to a mutual agreement between the two companies.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ability to include mathematical formulas in HTML would not be standardized until years later in ⌊>MathML>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊>December 18>⌋, ⌊>1997>⌋:∗⌋ ⌊> HTML 4.0>⌋, published as a W3C Recommendation.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It offers three "flavors":@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Strict, in which deprecated elements are forbidden,#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Transitional, in which deprecated elements are allowed,#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Frameset, in which mostly only ⌊>frame>⌋ related elements are allowed;#⌋•⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML 4.0 (initially code-named "Cougar") likewise adopted many browser-specific element types and attributes, but at the same time sought to phase out Netscape's visual markup features by marking them as ⌊>deprecated>⌋ in favor of style sheets.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Minor editorial revisions to the HTML 4.0 specification were published in 1998 without incrementing the version number and further minor revisions as HTML 4.01.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊>April 24>⌋, ⌊>1998>⌋:∗⌋ ⌊> HTML 4.0>⌋ was reissued with minor edits without incrementing the version number.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊>December 24>⌋, ⌊>1999>⌋:∗⌋ ⌊> HTML 4.01>⌋, published as a W3C Recommendation.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It offers the same three flavors as HTML 4.0, and its last ⌊> errata>⌋ were published ⌊>May 12>⌋, ⌊>2001>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML 4.01 and ISO/IEC 15445:2000 are the most recent and final versions of HTML.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊>May 15>⌋, ⌊>2000>⌋:∗⌋ ⌊> ISO/IEC 15445:2000>⌋ ("⌊>ISO>⌋ HTML", based on HTML 4.01 Strict), published as an ISO/IEC international standard.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗⌊>January 22>⌋, ⌊>2008>⌋:∗⌋ ⌊> HTML 5>⌋, published as a Working Draft by W3C.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=XHTML versions¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML is a separate language that began as a reformulation of HTML 4.01 using XML 1.0.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It continues to be developed:@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>XHTML 1.0>⌋, published ⌊>January 26>⌋, ⌊>2000>⌋ as a W3C Recommendation, later revised and republished ⌊>August 1>⌋, ⌊>2002>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It offers the same three flavors as HTML 4.0 and 4.01, reformulated in XML, with minor restrictions.#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>XHTML 1.1>⌋, published ⌊>May 31>⌋, ⌊>2001>⌋ as a W3C Recommendation.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is based on XHTML 1.0 Strict, but includes minor changes, can be customized, and is reformulated using modules from ⌊> Modularization of XHTML>⌋, which was published ⌊>April 10>⌋, ⌊>2001>⌋ as a W3C Recommendation.#⌋@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>XHTML 2.0>⌋ is still a W3C Working Draft.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML 2.0 is incompatible with XHTML 1.x and, therefore, would be more accurate to characterize as an XHTML-inspired new language than an update to XHTML 1.x.#⌋@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#XHTML 5, which is an update to XHTML 1.x, is being defined alongside ⌊>HTML 5>⌋ in the ⌊> HTML 5 draft>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=HTML markup¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML markup consists of several key components, including ⌊/elements/⌋ (and their ⌊/attributes/⌋), character-based ⌊/data types/⌋, and ⌊/character references/⌋ and ⌊/entity references/⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another important component is the ⌊/document type declaration/⌋.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML ⌊>Hello World>⌋:@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Elements¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊/See ⌊>HTML element>⌋s for more detailed descriptions./⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Elements are the basic structure for HTML markup.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Elements have two basic properties: attributes and content.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each attribute and each element's content has certain restrictions that must be followed for an HTML document to be considered valid.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An element usually has a start tag (e.g. ⌊◊<element-name>◊⌋) and an end tag (e.g. ⌊◊</element-name>◊⌋).@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The element's attributes are contained in the start tag and content is located between the tags (e.g. ⌊◊<element-name&nbsp;attribute="value">Content</element-name>◊⌋).@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some elements, such as ⌊◊<br>◊⌋, do not have any content and must not have a closing tag.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Listed below are several types of markup elements used in HTML.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Structural∗⌋ markup describes the purpose of text.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, ⌊◊<h2>Golf</h2>◊⌋ establishes "Golf" as a second-level ⌊>heading>⌋, which would be rendered in a browser in a manner similar to the "HTML markup" title at the start of this section.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Structural markup does not denote any specific rendering, but most Web browsers have standardized on how elements should be formatted.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Text may be further styled with ⌊>Cascading Style Sheets>⌋ (CSS).@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Presentational∗⌋ markup describes the appearance of the text, regardless of its function.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example ⌊◊<b>boldface</b>◊⌋ indicates that visual output devices should render "boldface" in bold text, but gives no indication what devices which are unable to do this (such as aural devices that read the text aloud) should do.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the case of both ⌊◊<b>bold</b>◊⌋ and ⌊◊<i>italic</i>◊⌋, there are elements which usually have an equivalent visual rendering but are more semantic in nature, namely ⌊◊<strong>strong emphasis</strong>◊⌋ and ⌊◊<em>emphasis</em>◊⌋ respectively.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is easier to see how an aural user agent should interpret the latter two elements.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, they are not equivalent to their presentational counterparts: it would be undesirable for a screen-reader to emphasize the name of a book, for instance, but on a screen such a name would be italicized.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most presentational markup elements have become ⌊>deprecated>⌋ under the HTML 4.0 specification, in favor of ⌊>CSS>⌋ based style design.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Hypertext∗⌋ markup links parts of the document to other documents.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML up through version ⌊>XHTML>⌋ 1.1 requires the use of an anchor element to create a hyperlink in the flow of text: ⌊◊<a>Wikipedia</a>◊⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the ⌊◊href◊⌋ attribute must also be set to a valid ⌊>URL>⌋ so for example the HTML code, ⌊◊<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/">Wikipedia</a>◊⌋, will render the word "⌊> Wikipedia>⌋" as a ⌊>hyperlink>⌋.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003600990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To link on an image, the anchor tag use the following syntax: <a href="url"><img src="image.gif" /></a>@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Attributes¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most of the attributes of an element are name-value pairs, separated by "=", and written within the start tag of an element, after the element's name.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The value may be enclosed in single or double quotes, although values consisting of certain characters can be left unquoted in HTML (but not XHTML).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Leaving attribute values unquoted is considered unsafe.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In contrast with name-value pair attributes, there are some attributes that affect the element simply by their presence in the start tag of the element (like the ⌊◊ismap◊⌋ attribute for the ⌊◊img◊⌋ element).@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most elements can take any of several common attributes:@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊◊id◊⌋ attribute provides a document-wide unique identifier for an element.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This can be used by stylesheets to provide presentational properties, by browsers to focus attention on the specific element, or by scripts to alter the contents or presentation of an element.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊◊class◊⌋ attribute provides a way of classifying similar elements for presentation purposes.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, an HTML document might use the designation ⌊◊class="notation"◊⌋ to indicate that all elements with this class value are subordinate to the main text of the document.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Such elements might be gathered together and presented as footnotes on a page instead of appearing in the place where they occur in the HTML source.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#An author may use the ⌊◊style◊⌋ non-attributal codes presentational properties to a particular element.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is considered better practice to use an element’s son- ⌊◊id◊⌋ page and select the element with a stylesheet, though sometimes this can be too cumbersome for a simple ad hoc application of styled properties.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#The ⌊◊title◊⌋ attribute is used to attach subtextual explanation to an element.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In most browsers this attribute is displayed as what is often referred to as a ⌊>tooltip>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The generic inline element ⌊◊span◊⌋ can be used to demonstrate these various attributes:@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This example displays as HTML; in most browsers, pointing the cursor at the abbreviation should display the title text "Hypertext Markup Language."@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most elements also take the language-related attributes ⌊◊lang◊⌋ and ⌊◊dir◊⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Character and entity references¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As of version 4.0, HTML defines a set of ⌊>252>⌋ ⌊>character entity reference>⌋s and a set of 1,114,050 ⌊>numeric character reference>⌋s, both of which allow individual characters to be written via simple markup, rather than literally.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A literal character and its markup counterpart are considered equivalent and are rendered identically.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ability to "escape" characters in this way allows for the characters ⌊◊<◊⌋ and ⌊◊&◊⌋ (when written as ⌊◊&lt;◊⌋ and ⌊◊&amp;◊⌋, respectively) to be interpreted as character data, rather than markup.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, a literal ⌊◊<◊⌋ normally indicates the start of a tag, and ⌊◊&◊⌋ normally indicates the start of a character entity reference or numeric character reference; writing it as ⌊◊&amp;◊⌋ or ⌊◊&#x26;◊⌋ or ⌊◊&#38;◊⌋ allows ⌊◊&◊⌋ to be included in the content of elements or the values of attributes.@@@@1@50@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The double-quote character (⌊◊"◊⌋), when used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as ⌊◊&quot;◊⌋ or ⌊◊&#x22;◊⌋ or ⌊◊&#34;◊⌋ when it appears within the attribute value itself.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The single-quote character (⌊◊'◊⌋), when used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as ⌊◊&#x27;◊⌋ or ⌊◊&#39;◊⌋ (should NOT be escaped as ⌊◊&apos;◊⌋ except in XHTML documents) when it appears within the attribute value itself.@@@@1@37@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, since document authors often overlook the need to escape these characters, browsers tend to be very forgiving, treating them as markup only when subsequent text appears to confirm that intent.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Escaping also allows for characters that are not easily typed or that aren't even available in the document's ⌊>character encoding>⌋ to be represented within the element and attribute content.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, the acute-accented ⌊◊e◊⌋ (⌊◊é◊⌋), a character typically found only on Western European keyboards, can be written in any HTML document as the entity reference ⌊◊&eacute;◊⌋ or as the numeric references ⌊◊&#233;◊⌋ or ⌊◊&#xE9;◊⌋.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The characters comprising those references (that is, the ⌊◊&◊⌋, the ⌊◊;◊⌋, the letters in ⌊◊eacute◊⌋, and so on) are available on all keyboards and are supported in all character encodings, whereas the literal ⌊◊é◊⌋ is not.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Data types¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML defines several ⌊>data type>⌋s for element content, such as script data and stylesheet data, and a plethora of types for attribute values, including IDs, names, URIs, numbers, units of length, languages, media descriptors, colors, character encodings, dates and times, and so on.@@@@1@43@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@All of these data types are specializations of character data.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=The Document Type Declaration¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In order to enable ⌊>Document Type Definition>⌋ (DTD)-based validation with SGML tools and in order to avoid the ⌊>quirks mode>⌋ in browsers, HTML documents can start with a ⌊>Document Type Declaration>⌋ (informally, a "DOCTYPE").@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The DTD to which the DOCTYPE refers contains machine-readable grammar specifying the permitted and prohibited content for a document conforming to such a DTD.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Browsers do not necessarily read the DTD, however.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most popular graphical browsers use DOCTYPE declarations (or the lack thereof) and other data at the beginning of sources to determine which rendering mode to use.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example:@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊◊<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">◊⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This declaration references the Strict DTD of HTML 4.01, which does not have presentational elements like ⌊◊<font>◊⌋, leaving formatting to Cascading Style Sheets and the ⌊◊span◊⌋ and ⌊◊div◊⌋ tags.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@SGML-based validators read the DTD in order to properly parse the document and to perform validation.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In modern browsers, the HTML 4.01 Strict doctype activates standards layout mode for ⌊>CSS>⌋ as opposed to ⌊>quirks mode>⌋.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Transitional DTD was intended to gradually phase in the changes made in the Strict DTD, while the Frameset DTD was intended for those documents which contained frames.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Semantic HTML¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There is no official specification called "Semantic HTML", though the strict flavors of HTML discussed ⌊>below>⌋ are a push in that direction.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Rather, semantic HTML refers to an objective and a practice to create documents with HTML that contain only the author's intended meaning, without any reference to how this meaning is presented or conveyed.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A classic example is the distinction between the emphasis element (⌊◊<em>◊⌋) and the italics element (⌊◊<i>◊⌋).@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Often the emphasis element is displayed in italics, so the presentation is typically the same.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, emphasizing something is different from listing the title of a book, for example, which may also be displayed in italics.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In purely semantic HTML, a book title would use a different element than emphasized text uses (for example a ⌊◊<span>◊⌋), because they are meaningfully different things.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The goal of semantic HTML requires two things of authors:@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#To avoid the use of presentational markup (elements, attributes, and other entities).#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#To use available markup to differentiate the meanings of phrases and structure in the document.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So for example, the book title from above would need to have its own element and class specified, such as ⌊◊<cite class="booktitle">The Grapes of Wrath</cite>.◊⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Here, the ⌊◊<cite>◊⌋ element is used because it most closely matches the meaning of this phrase in the text.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the ⌊◊<cite>◊⌋ element is not specific enough to this task, since we mean to cite specifically a book title as opposed to a newspaper article or an academic journal.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Semantic HTML also requires complementary specifications and software compliance with these specifications.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Primarily, the development and proliferation of ⌊>CSS>⌋ has led to increasing support for semantic HTML, because CSS provides designers with a rich language to alter the presentation of semantic-only documents.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the development of CSS, the need to include presentational properties in a document has virtually disappeared.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the advent and refinement of CSS and the increasing support for it in Web browsers, subsequent editions of HTML increasingly stress only using markup that suggests the semantic structure and phrasing of the document, like headings, paragraphs, quotes, and lists, instead of using markup which is written for visual purposes only, like ⌊◊<font>◊⌋, ⌊◊<b>◊⌋ (bold), and ⌊◊<i>◊⌋ (italics).@@@@1@59@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some of these elements are not permitted in certain varieties of HTML, like HTML 4.01 Strict.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@CSS provides a way to separate document semantics from the content's presentation, by keeping everything relevant to presentation defined in a CSS file.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@See ⌊>separation of style and content>⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Semantic HTML offers many advantages.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@First, it ensures consistency in style across elements that have the same meaning.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Every heading, every quotation, every similar element receives the same presentation properties.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Second, semantic HTML frees authors from the need to concern themselves with presentation details.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When writing the number two, for example, should it be written out in words ("two"), or should it be written as a numeral (2)?@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A semantic markup might enter something like <number>2</number> and leave presentation details to the stylesheet designers.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, an author might wonder where to break out quotations into separate indented blocks of text: with purely semantic HTML, such details would be left up to stylesheet designers.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Authors would simply indicate quotations when they occur in the text, and not concern themselves with presentation.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A third advantage is device independence and repurposing of documents.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A semantic HTML document can be paired with any number of stylesheets to provide output to computer screens (through Web browsers), high-resolution printers, handheld devices, aural browsers or braille devices for those with visual impairments, and so on.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To accomplish this, nothing needs to be changed in a well-coded semantic HTML document.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Readily available stylesheets make this a simple matter of pairing a semantic HTML document with the appropriate stylesheets.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Of course, the stylesheet's selectors need to match the appropriate properties in the HTML document.)@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some aspects of authoring documents make separating semantics from style (in other words, meaning from presentation) difficult.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Some elements are hybrids, using presentation in their very meaning.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For example, a table displays content in a tabular form.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Often such content conveys the meaning only when presented in this way.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Repurposing a table for an aural device typically involves somehow presenting the table as an inherently visual element in an audible form.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On the other hand, we frequently present lyrical songs—something inherently meant for audible presentation—and instead present them in textual form on a Web page.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For these types of elements, the meaning is not so easily separated from their presentation.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, for a great many of the elements used and meanings conveyed in HTML, the translation is relatively smooth.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Delivery of HTML¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML documents can be delivered by the same means as any other computer file; however, they are most often delivered in one of two forms: over ⌊>HTTP>⌋ servers and through e-mail.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Publishing HTML with HTTP¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>World Wide Web>⌋ is composed primarily of HTML documents transmitted from a ⌊>Web server>⌋ to a Web browser using the ⌊>Hypertext Transfer Protocol>⌋ (HTTP).@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, HTTP can be used to serve images, sound, and other content in addition to HTML.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To allow the Web browser to know how to handle the document it received, an indication of the ⌊>file format>⌋ of the document must be transmitted along with the document.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This vital ⌊>metadata>⌋ includes the ⌊>MIME>⌋ type (⌊τtext/htmlτ⌋ for HTML 4.01 and earlier, ⌊τapplication/xhtml+xmlτ⌋ for XHTML 1.0 and later) and the character encoding (see ⌊>Character encodings in HTML>⌋).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In modern browsers, the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document affects how the document is interpreted.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A document sent with an XHTML MIME type, or ⌊/served as application/xhtml+xml/⌋, is expected to be ⌊>well-formed>⌋ XML, and a syntax error causes the browser to fail to render the document.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The same document sent with an HTML MIME type, or ⌊/served as text/html/⌋, might be displayed successfully, since Web browsers are more lenient with HTML.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, XHTML parsed in this way is not considered either proper XHTML or HTML, but so-called ⌊>tag soup>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@If the MIME type is not recognized as HTML, the Web browser should not attempt to render the document as HTML, even if the document is prefaced with a correct Document Type Declaration.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Nevertheless, some Web browsers do examine the contents or URL of the document and attempt to infer the file type, despite this being forbidden by the HTTP 1.1 specification.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=HTML e-mail¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003601990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Most graphical ⌊>e-mail>⌋ clients allow the use of a subset of HTML (often ill-defined) to provide formatting and ⌊>semantic>⌋ markup capabilities not available with ⌊>plain text>⌋, like emphasized text, block quotations for replies, and diagrams or mathematical formulas that could not easily be described otherwise.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Many of these clients include both a ⌊>GUI>⌋ editor for composing HTML e-mail messages and a rendering engine for displaying received HTML messages.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Use of HTML in e-mail is controversial because of compatibility issues, because it can be used in ⌊>phishing>⌋/privacy attacks, because it can confuse ⌊>spam>⌋ filters, and because the message size is larger than plain text.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Naming conventions¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The most common ⌊>filename extension>⌋ for ⌊>files>⌋ containing HTML is ⌊τ.htmlτ⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A common abbreviation of this is ⌊τ.htmτ⌋; it originates from older operating systems and file systems, such as the ⌊>DOS>⌋ versions from the 80s and early 90s and ⌊>FAT>⌋, which limit file extensions to three letters.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Both forms are widely supported by browsers.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Current flavors of HTML¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since its inception, HTML and its associated protocols gained acceptance relatively quickly.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, no clear standards existed in the early years of the language.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Though its creators originally conceived of HTML as a semantic language devoid of presentation details, practical uses pushed many presentational elements and attributes into the language, driven largely by the various browser vendors.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The latest standards surrounding HTML reflect efforts to overcome the sometimes chaotic development of the language and to create a rational foundation for building both meaningful and well-presented documents.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To return HTML to its role as a semantic language, the ⌊>W3C>⌋ has developed style languages such as ⌊>CSS>⌋ and ⌊>XSL>⌋ to shoulder the burden of presentation.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In conjunction, the HTML specification has slowly reined in the presentational elements.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are two axes differentiating various flavors of HTML as currently specified: SGML-based HTML versus XML-based HTML (referred to as XHTML) on the one axis, and strict versus transitional (loose) versus frameset on the other axis.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=SGML-based versus XML-based HTML¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One difference in the latest HTML specifications lies in the distinction between the SGML-based specification and the XML-based specification.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The XML-based specification is usually called XHTML to distinguish it clearly from the more traditional definition; however, the root element name continues to be 'html' even in the XHTML-specified HTML.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The W3C intended XHTML 1.0 to be identical to HTML 4.01 except where limitations of XML over the more complex SGML require workarounds.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Because XHTML and HTML are closely related, they are sometimes documented in parallel.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In such circumstances, some authors conflate the two names as (X)HTML or X(HTML).@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Like HTML 4.01, XHTML 1.0 has three sub-specifications: strict, loose, and frameset.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Aside from the different opening declarations for a document, the differences between an HTML 4.01 and XHTML 1.0 document—in each of the corresponding DTDs—are largely syntactic.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The underlying syntax of HTML allows many shortcuts that XHTML does not, such as elements with optional opening or closing tags, and even EMPTY elements which must not have an end tag.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By contrast, XHTML requires all elements to have an opening tag or a closing tag.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML, however, also introduces a new shortcut: an XHTML tag may be opened and closed within the same tag, by including a slash before the end of the tag like this: ⌊◊<br/>◊⌋.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The introduction of this shorthand, which is not used in the SGML declaration for HTML 4.01, may confuse earlier software unfamiliar with this new convention.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To understand the subtle differences between HTML and XHTML, consider the transformation of a valid and well-formed XHTML 1.0 document that adheres to Appendix C (see below) into a valid HTML 4.01 document.@@@@1@33@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To make this translation requires the following steps:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗The language for an element should be specified with a ⌊◊lang◊⌋ attribute rather than the XHTML ⌊◊xml:lang◊⌋ attribute.∗⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML uses XML's built in language-defining functionality attribute.#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Remove the XML namespace (⌊◊xmlns=URI◊⌋).∗⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML has no facilities for namespaces.#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Change the document type declaration∗⌋ from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01. (see ⌊>DTD section>⌋ for further explanation).#⌋@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#If present, ⌊∗remove the XML declaration.∗⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@(Typically this is: ⌊◊<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>◊⌋).#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Ensure that the document’s MIME type is set to ⌊◊text/html◊⌋.∗⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For both HTML and XHTML, this comes from the HTTP ⌊◊Content-Type◊⌋ header sent by the server.#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Change the XML empty-element syntax to an HTML style empty element∗⌋ (⌊◊<br/>◊⌋ to ⌊◊<br>◊⌋).#⌋•⌋@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Those are the main changes necessary to translate a document from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@To translate from HTML to XHTML would also require the addition of any omitted opening or closing tags.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Whether coding in HTML or XHTML it may just be best to always include the optional tags within an HTML document rather than remembering which tags can be omitted.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A well-formed XHTML document adheres to all the syntax requirements of XML.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A valid document adheres to the content specification for XHTML, which describes the document structure.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The W3C recommends several conventions to ensure an easy migration between HTML and XHTML (see ⌊> HTML Compatibility Guidelines>⌋).@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The following steps can be applied to XHTML 1.0 documents only:@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Include both ⌊◊xml:lang◊⌋ and ⌊◊lang◊⌋ attributes on any elements assigning language.#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Use the empty-element syntax only for elements specified as empty in HTML.#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Include an extra space in empty-element tags: for example ⌊◊<br />◊⌋ instead of ⌊◊<br/>◊⌋.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty (for example, ⌊◊<div>◊⌋⌊◊</div>◊⌋, not ⌊◊<div />◊⌋).#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Omit the XML declaration.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@By carefully following the W3C’s compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For documents that are XHTML 1.0 and have been made compatible in this way, the W3C permits them to be served either as HTML (with a ⌊◊text/html◊⌋ ⌊>MIME type>⌋), or as XHTML (with an ⌊◊application/xhtml+xml◊⌋ or ⌊◊application/xml◊⌋ MIME type).@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, which adheres strictly to the XML specifications for parsing the document's contents.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Transitional versus Strict¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The latest SGML-based specification HTML 4.01 and the earliest XHTML version include three sub-specifications: Strict, Transitional (once called Loose), and Frameset.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Strict variant represents the standard proper, whereas the Transitional and Frameset variants were developed to assist in the transition from earlier versions of HTML (including HTML 3.2).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The Transitional and Frameset variants allow for ⌊>presentational markup>⌋ whereas the Strict variant encourages the use of style sheets through its omission of most presentational markup.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The primary differences which make the Transitional variant more permissive than the Strict variant (the differences as the same in HTML 4 and XHTML 1.0) are:@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗A looser content model∗⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Inline elements and plain text (#PCDATA) are allowed directly in: ⌊◊body◊⌋, ⌊◊blockquote◊⌋, ⌊◊form◊⌋, ⌊◊noscript◊⌋ and ⌊◊noframes◊⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Presentation related elements∗⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#underline (⌊◊u◊⌋)#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#strike-through (⌊◊del◊⌋)#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊center◊⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊font◊⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊basefont◊⌋#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Presentation related attributes∗⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊◊background◊⌋ and ⌊◊bgcolor◊⌋ attributes for ⌊◊body◊⌋ element.#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊align◊⌋ attribute on ⌊◊div◊⌋, ⌊◊form◊⌋, ⌊◊paragraph◊⌋ (p), and heading (⌊◊h1◊⌋...⌊◊h6◊⌋) elements#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊align◊⌋, ⌊◊noshade◊⌋, ⌊◊size◊⌋, and ⌊◊width◊⌋ attributes on ⌊◊hr◊⌋ element#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊align◊⌋, ⌊◊border◊⌋, ⌊◊vspace◊⌋, and ⌊◊hspace◊⌋ attributes on ⌊◊img◊⌋ and ⌊◊object◊⌋ elements#⌋@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊align◊⌋ attribute on ⌊◊legend◊⌋ and ⌊◊caption◊⌋ elements#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊align◊⌋ and ⌊◊bgcolor◊⌋ on ⌊◊table◊⌋ element#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊nowrap◊⌋, ⌊◊bgcolor◊⌋, ⌊◊width◊⌋, ⌊◊height◊⌋ on ⌊◊td◊⌋ and ⌊◊th◊⌋ elements#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊bgcolor◊⌋ attribute on ⌊◊tr◊⌋ element#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊clear◊⌋ attribute on ⌊◊br◊⌋ element#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊compact◊⌋ attribute on ⌊◊dl◊⌋, ⌊◊dir◊⌋ and ⌊◊menu◊⌋ elements#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊type◊⌋, ⌊◊compact◊⌋, and ⌊◊start◊⌋ attributes on ⌊◊ol◊⌋ and ⌊◊ul◊⌋ elements#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊type◊⌋ and ⌊◊value◊⌋ attributes on ⌊◊li◊⌋ element#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊width◊⌋ attribute on ⌊◊pre◊⌋ element#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Additional elements in Transitional specification∗⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊◊menu◊⌋ list (no substitute, though unordered list is recommended; may return in XHTML 2.0 specification)#⌋@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊dir◊⌋ list (no substitute, though unordered list is recommended)#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊isindex◊⌋ (element requires server-side support and is typically added to documents server-side)#⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊applet◊⌋ (deprecated in favor of object element)#⌋•⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗The ⌊◊language◊⌋ attribute on script element∗⌋ (presumably redundant with ⌊◊type◊⌋ attribute, though this is maintained for legacy reasons).#⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Frame related entities∗⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊◊frameset◊⌋ element (used in place of body for frameset DTD)#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊frame◊⌋ element#⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊iframe◊⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊noframes◊⌋#⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊◊target◊⌋ attribute on ⌊◊anchor◊⌋, client-side image-map (⌊◊imagemap◊⌋), ⌊◊link◊⌋, ⌊◊form◊⌋, and ⌊◊base◊⌋ elements#⌋•⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Frameset versus transitional¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In addition to the above transitional differences, the frameset specifications (whether XHTML 1.0 or HTML 4.01) specifies a different content model:@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Summary of flavors¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As this list demonstrates, the loose flavors of the specification are maintained for legacy support.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The primary achievement in the move from XHTML 1.0 to XHTML 1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003602990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML 1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML 1.1 specification.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Likewise someone looking for the loose (transitional) or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML 1.1 support (much of it is contained in the legacy or frame modules).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@So for example XHTML 1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as ⌊>MathML>⌋ (a presentational and semantic math language based on XML) and ⌊>XForms>⌋ — a new highly advanced web-form technology to replace the existing HTML forms.@@@@1@40@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In summary, the HTML 4.01 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clear written specification based on SGML.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML 1.0, ported this specification, as is, to the new XML defined specification.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Next, XHTML 1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@XHTML 2.0 will be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Hypertext features not in HTML¦2=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@HTML lacks some of the features found in earlier hypertext systems, such as ⌊>typed link>⌋s, ⌊>transclusion>⌋, ⌊>source tracking>⌋, ⌊>fat link>⌋s, and more.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Even some hypertext features that were in early versions of HTML have been ignored by most popular web browsers until recently, such as the ⌊>link>⌋ element and in-browser Web page editing.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sometimes Web services or browser manufacturers remedy these shortcomings.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003603110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@For instance, ⌊>wiki>⌋s and ⌊>content management system>⌋s allow surfers to edit the Web pages they visit.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δHidden Markov modelδ⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A ⌊∗hidden Markov model∗⌋ (⌊∗HMM∗⌋) is a ⌊>statistical model>⌋ in which the system being modeled is assumed to be a ⌊>Markov process>⌋ with unknown parameters, and the challenge is to determine the hidden parameters from the ⌊>observable>⌋ parameters.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The extracted model parameters can then be used to perform further analysis, for example for ⌊>pattern recognition>⌋ applications.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@An HMM can be considered as the simplest ⌊>dynamic Bayesian network>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a regular ⌊>Markov model>⌋, the state is directly visible to the observer, and therefore the state transition probabilities are the only parameters.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In a ⌊/hidden/⌋ Markov model, the state is not directly visible, but variables influenced by the state are visible.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each state has a probability distribution over the possible output tokens.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Therefore the sequence of tokens generated by an HMM gives some information about the sequence of states.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hidden Markov models are especially known for their application in ⌊> temporal>⌋ pattern recognition such as ⌊>speech>⌋, ⌊>handwriting>⌋, ⌊>gesture recognition>⌋, ⌊>musical score>⌋ following, ⌊>partial discharge>⌋s and ⌊>bioinformatics>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Architecture of a hidden Markov model¦2=⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The diagram below shows the general architecture of an instantiated HMM.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Each oval shape represents a random variable that can adopt a number of values.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The random variable ⌊×x(t)×⌋ is the hidden state at time ⌊×t×⌋ (with the model from the above diagram, ⌊×x(t) \\in \\{x_1, x_2, x_3\\}×⌋).@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The random variable ⌊×y(t)×⌋ is the observation at time ⌊×t×⌋ (⌊×y(t) \\in \\{y_1, y_2, y_3, y_4\\}×⌋).@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The arrows in the diagram (often called a ⌊>trellis diagram>⌋) denote conditional dependencies.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@From the diagram, it is clear that the value of the hidden variable ⌊×x(t)×⌋ (at time ⌊×t×⌋) ⌊/only/⌋ depends on the value of the hidden variable ⌊×x(t-1)×⌋ : the values at time ⌊×t-2×⌋ and before have no influence.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This is called the ⌊>Markov property>⌋.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Similarly, the value of the observed variable ⌊×y(t)×⌋ only depends on the value of the hidden variable ⌊×x(t)×⌋ (both at time ⌊×t×⌋).@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Probability of an observed sequence¦2=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The probability of observing a sequence ⌊×Y=y(0), y(1),\\dots,y(L-1)×⌋ of length ⌊×L×⌋ is given by@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊⇥⌊×P(Y)=\\sum_{X}P(Y\\mid X)P(X),×⌋⇥⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@where the sum runs over all possible hidden node sequences ⌊×X=x(0), x(1), \\dots, x(L-1)×⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Brute force calculation of ⌊×P(Y)×⌋ is intractable for most real-life problems, as the number of possible hidden node sequences is typically extremely high.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The calculation can however be sped up enormously using the ⌊>forward algorithm>⌋ or the equivalent backward algorithm.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Using hidden Markov models¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There are three ⌊>canonical>⌋ problems associated with HMM:@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Given the parameters of the model, compute the probability of a particular output sequence, and the probabilities of the hidden state values given that output sequence.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem is solved by the ⌊>forward-backward algorithm>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Given the parameters of the model, find the most likely sequence of hidden states that could have generated a given output sequence.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem is solved by the ⌊>Viterbi algorithm>⌋.#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Given an output sequence or a set of such sequences, find the most likely set of state transition and output probabilities.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In other words, discover the parameters of the HMM given a dataset of sequences.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This problem is solved by the ⌊>Baum-Welch algorithm>⌋.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=A concrete example¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊/This example is further elaborated in the ⌊>Viterbi algorithm>⌋ page./⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Applications of hidden Markov models¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Cryptanalysis>⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Speech recognition>⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Machine translation>⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Partial discharge>⌋#⌋•⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Hidden Markov Models were first described in a series of statistical papers by ⌊>Leonard E. Baum>⌋ and other authors in the second half of the 1960s.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of the first applications of HMMs was ⌊>speech recognition>⌋, starting in the mid-1970s.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the second half of the 1980s, HMMs began to be applied to the analysis of biological sequences, in particular ⌊>DNA>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003700450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Since then, they have become ubiquitous in the field of ⌊>bioinformatics>⌋.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊δIBMδ⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗International Business Machines Corporation,∗⌋ abbreviated ⌊∗IBM∗⌋ and nicknamed ⌊∗"Big Blue,"∗⌋ ⌊>NYSE>⌋: ⌊> IBM>⌋ , is a ⌊>multinational>⌋ ⌊>computer>⌋ ⌊>technology>⌋ and ⌊>consulting>⌋ ⌊>corporation>⌋ headquartered in ⌊>Armonk, New York>⌋, ⌊>USA>⌋.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company is one of the few ⌊>information technology>⌋ companies with a continuous history dating back to the 19th century.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM manufactures and sells computer ⌊>hardware>⌋ and ⌊>software>⌋, and offers infrastructure services, ⌊>hosting services>⌋, and ⌊>consulting services>⌋ in areas ranging from ⌊>mainframe computer>⌋s to ⌊>nanotechnology>⌋.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has been known through most of its recent history as the world's largest computer company; with over 388,000 employees worldwide, IBM is the largest ⌊>information technology>⌋ employer in the world.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Despite falling behind ⌊>Hewlett-Packard>⌋ in total revenue since 2006, it remains the most profitable.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM holds more ⌊>patent>⌋s than any other U.S. based technology company.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It has engineers and consultants in over 170 countries and ⌊>IBM Research>⌋ has eight laboratories worldwide.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM employees have earned three ⌊>Nobel Prize>⌋s, four ⌊>Turing Award>⌋s, five ⌊>National Medals of Technology>⌋, and five ⌊>National Medals of Science>⌋.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a chip maker, IBM has been among the ⌊>Worldwide Top 20 Semiconductor Sales Leaders>⌋ in past years, and in 2007 IBM ranked second in the list of largest software companies in the world.@@@@1@34@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=History¦2=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company which became IBM was founded in 1896 as the Tabulating Machine Company by ⌊>Herman Hollerith>⌋, in ⌊>Broome County, New York>⌋ (⌊>Endicott, New York>⌋, Where it still maintains very limited operations).@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It was incorporated as ⌊>Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (CTR)>⌋ on ⌊>June 16>⌋, ⌊>1911>⌋, and was listed on the ⌊>New York Stock Exchange>⌋ in 1916.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM adopted its current name in 1924, when it became a ⌊>Fortune 500>⌋ company.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1950s, IBM became the dominant vendor in the emerging ⌊>computer>⌋ industry with the release of the ⌊>IBM 701>⌋ and other models in the ⌊>IBM 700/7000 series>⌋ of ⌊>mainframes>⌋.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company's dominance became even more pronounced in the 1960s and 1970s with the ⌊>IBM System/360>⌋ and ⌊>IBM System/370>⌋ mainframes, however antitrust actions by the ⌊>United States Department of Justice>⌋, the rise of ⌊>minicomputer>⌋ companies like ⌊>Digital Equipment Corporation>⌋ and ⌊>Data General>⌋, and the introduction of the ⌊>microprocessor>⌋ all contributed to dilution of IBM's position in the industry, eventually leading the company to diversify into other areas including personal computers, software, and services.@@@@1@73@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1981 IBM introduced the ⌊>IBM Personal Computer>⌋ which is the original version and progenitor of the ⌊>IBM PC compatible>⌋ hardware ⌊>platform>⌋.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Descendants of the IBM PC compatibles make up the majority of ⌊>microcomputer>⌋s on the market today.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM sold its PC division to the Chinese company ⌊>Lenovo>⌋ on ⌊>May 1>⌋, ⌊>2005>⌋ for $655 million in cash and $600 million in Lenovo stock.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>January 25>⌋, ⌊>2007>⌋, ⌊>Ricoh>⌋ announced purchase of IBM Printing Systems Division for $725 million and investment in 3-year joint venture to form a new Ricoh subsidiary, ⌊>InfoPrint Solutions Company>⌋; Ricoh will own a 51% share, and IBM will own a 49% share in ⌊/InfoPrint/⌋.@@@@1@45@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Controversies¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The author ⌊>Edwin Black>⌋ has alleged that, during ⌊>World War II>⌋, IBM CEO ⌊>Thomas J. Watson>⌋ used overseas subsidiaries to provide the ⌊>Third Reich>⌋ with ⌊>unit record>⌋ ⌊>data processing>⌋ machines, supplies and services that helped the ⌊>Nazis>⌋ to efficiently track down European Jews, with sizable profits for the company.@@@@1@49@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM denies that they had control over these subsidiaries after the Nazis took power.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A lawsuit against IBM based on these allegations was dismissed.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In support of the Allied war effort in World War II, from 1943 to 1945 IBM produced approximately 346,500 M1 Carbine (Caliber .30 carbine) light rifles for the U.S. Military.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Current projects¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Eclipse¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Eclipse is a platform-independent, ⌊>Java>⌋-based ⌊>software framework>⌋.@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Eclipse was originally a ⌊>proprietary>⌋ product developed by IBM as a successor of the ⌊>VisualAge>⌋ family of tools.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Eclipse has subsequently been released as ⌊>free>⌋/⌊>open source>⌋ software under the ⌊>Eclipse Public License>⌋.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=developerWorks¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@developerWorks is a website run by ⌊>IBM>⌋ for ⌊>software developer>⌋s and IT professionals.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It contains a large number of how-to articles and tutorials, as well as software downloads and code samples, discussion forums, podcasts, blogs, wikis, and other resources for developers and technical professionals.@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Subjects range from open, industry-standard technologies like ⌊>Java>⌋, ⌊>Linux>⌋, ⌊>SOA>⌋ and ⌊>web services>⌋, ⌊>web development>⌋, ⌊>Ajax>⌋, ⌊>PHP>⌋, and ⌊>XML>⌋ to IBM's products (⌊>WebSphere>⌋, ⌊>Rational>⌋, ⌊>Lotus>⌋, ⌊>Tivoli>⌋ and ⌊>DB2>⌋).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2007 developerWorks was inducted into the Jolt Hall of Fame.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=alphaWorks¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@alphaWorks is IBM's source for emerging software technologies.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These technologies include:@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊∗Flexible Internet Evaluation Report Architecture∗⌋ - A highly flexible architecture for the design, display, and reporting of Internet surveys.#⌋@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗⌊>IBM History Flow Visualization Application>⌋∗⌋ - A tool for visualizing dynamic, evolving documents and the interactions of multiple collaborating authors.#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗IBM ⌊>Linux>⌋ on POWER Performance Simulator∗⌋ - A tool that provides users of Linux on Power a set of performance models for IBM's POWER processors.#⌋@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Database File Archive And Restoration Management∗⌋ - An application for archiving and restoring hard disk files using file references stored in a database.#⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Policy Management for Autonomic Computing∗⌋ - A policy-based autonomic management infrastructure that simplifies the automation of IT and business processes.#⌋@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗FairUCE∗⌋ - A spam filter that verifies sender identity instead of filtering content.#⌋@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) SDK∗⌋ - A Java SDK that supports the implementation, composition, and deployment of applications working with unstructured information.#⌋@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊∗Accessibility Browser∗⌋ - A web-browser specifically designed to assist people with visual impairments, to be released as open-source software.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also known as the "A-Browser," the technology will aim to eliminate the need for a mouse, relying instead completely on voice-controls, buttons and predefined shortcut keys.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Semiconductor design and manufacturing¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Virtually all modern ⌊>console gaming systems>⌋ use ⌊>microprocessors developed>⌋ by IBM.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Xbox 360>⌋ contains the ⌊>Xenon>⌋ tri-core processor, which was designed and produced by IBM in less than 24 months.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Sony's ⌊>PlayStation 3>⌋ features the ⌊> Cell BE microprocessor>⌋ designed jointly by IBM, ⌊>Toshiba>⌋, and ⌊>Sony>⌋.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Nintendo>⌋'s ⌊>seventh-generation>⌋ console, ⌊>Wii>⌋, features an IBM chip codenamed ⌊>Broadway>⌋.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The older ⌊>Nintendo GameCube>⌋ also utilizes the ⌊>Gekko>⌋ processor, designed by IBM.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In May 2002, IBM and Butterfly.net, Inc. announced the Butterfly Grid, a commercial ⌊>grid>⌋ for the online video gaming market.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In March 2006, IBM announced separate agreements with Hoplon Infotainment, Online Game Services Incorporated (OGSI), and RenderRocket to provide on-demand content management and ⌊>blade server>⌋ computing resources.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Open Client Offering¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM announced it will launch its new software, called "Open Client Offering" which is to run on ⌊>Microsoft>⌋'s ⌊>Windows>⌋, ⌊>Linux>⌋ and ⌊>Apple>⌋'s ⌊>Macintosh>⌋.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company states that its new product allows businesses to offer employees a choice of using the same software on Windows and its alternatives.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This means that "Open Client Offering" is to cut costs of managing whether Linux or Apple relative to Windows.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@There will be no necessity for companies to pay Microsoft for its licenses for operations since the operations will no longer rely on software which is Windows-based.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One of Microsoft's office alternatives is the Open Document Format software, whose development IBM supports.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It is going to be used for several tasks like: word processing, presentations, along with collaboration with ⌊>Lotus Notes>⌋, instant messaging and blog tools as well as an ⌊>Internet Explorer>⌋ competitor – the ⌊>Firefox>⌋ web browser.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM plans to install Open Client on 5 percent of its desktop PCs.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=UC2: Unified Communications and Collaboration¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗UC2∗⌋ (⌊/Unified Communications and Collaboration/⌋) is an IBM and ⌊>Cisco>⌋ joint project based on ⌊>Eclipse>⌋ and ⌊>OSGi>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It will offer the numerous Eclipse application developers a unified platform for an easier work environment.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The software based on UC2 platform will provide major enterprises with easy-to-use communication solutions, such as the Lotus based ⌊>Sametime>⌋.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the future the Sametime users will benefit from such additional functions as ⌊>click-to-call>⌋ and ⌊>voice mailing>⌋.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Internal programs¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Extreme Blue>⌋ is a company initiative that uses experienced IBM engineers, talented interns, and business managers to develop high-value technology.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The project is designed to analyze emerging business needs and the technologies that can solve them.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These projects mostly involve rapid-prototyping of high-profile software and hardware projects.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In May 2007, IBM unveiled ⌊>Project Big Green>⌋ -- a re-direction of $1 billion per year across its businesses to increase energy efficiency.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=IBM Software Group¦2=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This group is one of the major divisions of IBM.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The various brands include:@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#⌊>Information Management Software>⌋ — database servers and tools, text analytics, content management, business process management and business intelligence.#⌋@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Lotus Software>⌋ — Groupware, collaboration and business software.@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Acquired in 1995.#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Rational Software>⌋ — Software development and application lifecycle management.@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Acquired in 2002.#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Tivoli Software>⌋ — Systems management.@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Acquired in 1996.#⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>WebSphere>⌋ — Integration and application infrastructure software.#⌋•⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Environmental record¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800860@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has a long history of dealing with its environmental problems.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800870@unknown@formal@none@1@S@It established a corporate policy on environmental protection in 1971, with the support of a comprehensive global environmental management system.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800880@unknown@formal@none@1@S@According to IBM’s stats, its total hazardous waste decreased by 44 percent over the past five years, and has decreased by 94.6 percent since 1987.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800890@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM's total hazardous waste calculation consists of waste from both non-manufacturing and manufacturing operations.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800900@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Waste from manufacturing operations includes waste recycled in closed-loop systems where process chemicals are recovered and for subsequent reuse, rather than just disposing and using new chemical materials.@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800910@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Over the years, IBM has redesigned processes to eliminate almost all closed loop recycling and now uses more environmental-friendly materials in their place.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800920@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM was recognized as one of the "Top 20 Best Workplaces for Commuters" by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (⌊>EPA>⌋) in 2005.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800930@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This was to recognize the Fortune 500 companies that provided their employees with excellent commuter benefits that helped reduce traffic and air pollution.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800940@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, the birthplace of IBM, ⌊>Endicott>⌋, suffered IBM's pollution for decades.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800950@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM used liquid cleaning agents in its circuit board assembly operation for more than two decades, and six spills and leaks incidents were recorded, including one 1979 leak of 4,100 gallons from an underground tank.@@@@1@35@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800960@unknown@formal@none@1@S@These left behind volatile organic compounds in the town's soil and aquifer.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800970@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Trace elements of volatile organic compounds have been identified in the Endicott’s drinking water, but the levels are within regulatory limits.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800980@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Also, from 1980, IBM has pumped out 78,000 gallons of chemicals, including trichloroethane, Freon, benzene and perchloroethene to the air and allegedly caused several cancer cases among the villagers.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003800990@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM Endicott has been identified by the Department of Environmental Conservation as the major source of pollution, though traces of contaminants from a local dry cleaner and other polluters were also found.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801000@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Despite the amount of pollutant, state health officials cannot say whether air or water pollution in Endicott has actually caused any health problems.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801010@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Village officials say tests show that the water is safe to drink.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801020@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Solar power¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801030@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Tokyo Ohka Kogyo Co., Ltd. (TOK) and IBM are collaborating to establish new, low-cost methods for bringing the next generation of solar energy products to market,this is, ⌊>CIGS>⌋ (Copper-Indium-Gallium-Selenide) ⌊>solar cell>⌋ modules.@@@@1@32@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801040@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Use of ⌊>thin film>⌋ technology, such as CIGS, has great promise in reducing the overall cost of solar cells and further enabling their widespread adoption.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801050@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM is exploring four main areas of photovoltaic research: using current technologies to develop cheaper and more efficient ⌊>silicon>⌋ ⌊>solar cell>⌋s, developing new solution processed ⌊>thin film>⌋ photovoltaic devices, ⌊>concentrator photovoltaics>⌋, and future generation photovoltaic architectures based upon ⌊>nanostructures>⌋ such as ⌊>semiconductor quantum dot>⌋s and ⌊>nanowire>⌋s.@@@@1@46@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801060@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Dr. Supratik Guha is the leading scientist in IBM photovoltaics.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801070@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Corporate culture of IBM¦2=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801080@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊∗Big Blue∗⌋ is a nickname for IBM; several theories exist regarding its origin.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801090@unknown@formal@none@1@S@One theory, substantiated by people who worked for IBM at the time, is that IBM field reps coined the term in the 1960s, referring to the color of the mainframes IBM installed in the 1960s and early 1970s.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801100@unknown@formal@none@1@S@"All blue" was a term used to describe a loyal IBM customer, and business writers later picked up the term.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801110@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Another theory suggests that Big Blue simply refers to the Company's ⌊>logo>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801120@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A third theory suggests that Big Blue refers to a former company dress code that required many IBM employees to wear only white shirts and many wore blue suits.@@@@1@29@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801130@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In any event, IBM keyboards, typewriters, and some other manufactured devices, have played on the "Big Blue" concept, using the color for enter keys and carriage returns.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801140@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Sales¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801150@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has often been described as having a sales-centric or a sales-oriented business culture.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801160@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Traditionally, many IBM executives and general managers are chosen from the sales force.@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801170@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The current CEO, ⌊>Sam Palmisano>⌋, for example, joined the company as a salesman and, unusually for CEOs of major corporations, has no MBA or postgraduate qualification.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801180@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Middle and top management are often enlisted to give direct support to salesmen when pitching sales to important customers.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801190@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=The uniform¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801200@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A dark (or gray) suit, white shirt, and a "sincere" tie was the public uniform for IBM employees for most of the 20th Century.@@@@1@24@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801210@unknown@formal@none@1@S@During IBM's management transformation in the 1990s, CEO ⌊>Lou Gerstner>⌋ relaxed these codes, normalizing the dress and behavior of IBM employees to resemble their counterparts in other large technology companies.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801220@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=IBM company values and "Jam"¦3=⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801230@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2003, IBM embarked on an ambitious project to rewrite company values.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801240@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Using its ⌊/Jam/⌋ technology, the company hosted Intranet-based online discussions on key business issues with 50,000 employees over 3 days.@@@@1@20@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801250@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The discussions were analyzed by sophisticated text analysis software (eClassifier) to mine online comments for themes.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801260@unknown@formal@none@1@S@As a result of the 2003 Jam, the company values were updated to reflect three modern business, marketplace and employee views: "Dedication to every client's success", "Innovation that matters - for our company and for the world", "Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships".@@@@1@44@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801270@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 2004, another Jam was conducted during which 52,000 employees exchanged best practices for 72 hours.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801280@unknown@formal@none@1@S@They focused on finding actionable ideas to support implementation of the values previously identified.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801290@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A new post-Jam Ratings event was developed to allow IBMers to select key ideas that support the values.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801300@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The board of directors cited this Jam when awarding Palmisano a pay rise in the spring of 2005.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801310@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In July and September 2006, Palmisano launched another jam called ⌊> InnovationJam>⌋.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801320@unknown@formal@none@1@S@InnovationJam was the largest online brainstorming session ever with more than 150,000 participants from 104 countries.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801330@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The participants were IBM employees, members of IBM employees' families, universities, partners, and customers.@@@@1@14@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801340@unknown@formal@none@1@S@InnovationJam was divided in two sessions (one in July and one in September) for 72 hours each and generated more than 46,000 ideas.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801350@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In November 2006, IBM declared that they will invest $US 100 million in the 10 best ideas from InnovationJam.@@@@1@19@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801360@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Open source¦3=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801370@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has been influenced by the ⌊>Open Source Initiative>⌋, and began supporting ⌊>Linux>⌋ in 1998.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801380@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on ⌊>Linux>⌋ through the IBM ⌊>Linux Technology Center>⌋, which includes over 300 ⌊>Linux kernel>⌋ developers.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801390@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM has also released code under different ⌊>open-source license>⌋s, such as the platform-independent software framework ⌊>Eclipse>⌋ (worth approximately US$40 million at the time of the donation) and the ⌊>Java>⌋-based ⌊>relational database management system>⌋ (RDBMS) ⌊>Apache Derby>⌋.@@@@1@36@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801400@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM's open source involvement has not been trouble-free, however (see ⌊/⌊>SCO v. IBM>⌋/⌋).@@@@1@13@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801410@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Corporate affairs¦2=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801420@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Diversity and workforce issues¦3=⌋@@@@1@4@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801430@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM's efforts to promote workforce diversity and equal opportunity date back at least to ⌊>World War I>⌋, when the company hired disabled veterans.@@@@1@23@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801440@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM was the only technology company ranked in ⌊/Working Mother/⌋ magazine's Top 10 for 2004, and one of two technology companies in 2005 (the other company being Hewlett-Packard).@@@@1@28@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801450@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>September 21>⌋, ⌊>1953>⌋, ⌊>Thomas J. Watson>⌋, the CEO at the time, sent out a very controversial letter to all IBM employees stating that IBM needed to hire the best people, regardless of their race, ethnic origin, or gender.@@@@1@39@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801460@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In 1984, IBM added sexual preference.@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801470@unknown@formal@none@1@S@He stated that this would give IBM a competitive advantage because IBM would then be able to hire talented people its competitors would turn down.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801480@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The company has traditionally resisted ⌊>labor union>⌋ organizing, although unions represent some IBM workers outside the United States.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801490@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In the 1990s, two major ⌊>pension>⌋ program changes, including a conversion to a cash balance plan, resulted in an employee ⌊>class action>⌋ lawsuit alleging ⌊>age discrimination>⌋.@@@@1@26@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801500@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM employees won the lawsuit and arrived at a partial settlement, although appeals are still underway.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801510@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM also settled a major overtime class-action lawsuit in 2006.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801520@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Historically IBM has had a good reputation of long-term staff retention with few large scale layoffs.@@@@1@16@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801530@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In more recent years there have been a number of broad sweeping cuts to the workforce as IBM attempts to adapt to changing market conditions and a declining profit base.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801540@unknown@formal@none@1@S@After posting weaker than expected revenues in the first quarter of 2005, IBM eliminated 14,500 positions from its workforce, predominantly in Europe.@@@@1@22@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801550@unknown@formal@none@1@S@In May 2005, IBM Ireland said to staff that the MD(Micro-electronics Division) facility was closing down by the end of 2005 and offered a settlement to staff.@@@@1@27@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801560@unknown@formal@none@1@S@However, all staff that wished to stay with the Company were redeployed within IBM Ireland.@@@@1@15@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801570@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The production moved to a company called Amkor in Singapore who purchased IBM's Microelectronics business in Singapore and is widely agreed that IBM promised this Company a full load capacity in return for the purchase of the facility.@@@@1@38@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801580@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>June 8>⌋ ⌊>2005>⌋, IBM Canada Ltd. eliminated approximately 700 positions.@@@@1@11@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801590@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM projects these as part of a strategy to "rebalance" its portfolio of professional skills & businesses.@@@@1@17@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801600@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>IBM India>⌋ and other IBM offices in ⌊>China>⌋, the ⌊>Philippines>⌋ and ⌊>Costa Rica>⌋ have been witnessing a recruitment boom and steady growth in number of employees due to lower wages.@@@@1@30@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801610@unknown@formal@none@1@S@On ⌊>October 10>⌋ ⌊>2005>⌋, IBM became the first major company in the world to formally commit to not using ⌊>genetic information>⌋ in its employment decisions.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801620@unknown@formal@none@1@S@This came just a few months after IBM announced its support of the ⌊>National Geographic Society>⌋'s ⌊>Genographic Project>⌋.@@@@1@18@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801630@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Gay rights¦4=⌋@@@@1@2@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801640@unknown@formal@none@1@S@IBM provides employees' same-sex partners with benefits and provides an anti-discrimination clause.@@@@1@12@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801650@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The ⌊>Human Rights Campaign>⌋ has consistently rated IBM 100% on its index of gay-friendliness since 2003 (in 2002, the year it began compiling its report on major companies, IBM scored 86%).@@@@1@31@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801660@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Logos¦3=⌋@@@@1@1@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801670@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊>Logo>⌋s designed in the 1970s tended to be sensitive to the technical limitations of photocopiers, which were then being widely deployed.@@@@1@21@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801680@unknown@formal@none@1@S@A logo with large solid areas tended to be poorly copied by copiers in the 1970s, so companies preferred logos that avoided large solid areas.@@@@1@25@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801690@unknown@formal@none@1@S@The 1972 IBM logos are an example of this tendency.@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801700@unknown@formal@none@1@S@With the advent of digital copiers in the mid-1980s this technical restriction had largely disappeared; at roughly the same time, the 13-bar logo was abandoned for almost the opposite reason – it was difficult to render accurately on the low-resolution digital printers (240 dots per inch) of the time.@@@@1@48@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801710@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊=Board of directors¦3=⌋@@@@1@3@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801720@unknown@formal@none@1@S@Current members of the ⌊>board of directors>⌋ of IBM are:@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801730@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊•⌊#Cathleen Black President, ⌊>Hearst Magazines>⌋#⌋@@@@1@5@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801740@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>William Brody>⌋ President, ⌊>Johns Hopkins University>⌋#⌋@@@@1@6@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801750@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Ken Chenault>⌋ Chairman and CEO, ⌊>American Express>⌋ Company#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801760@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Juergen Dormann Chairman of the Board, ABB Ltd#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801770@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Michael Eskew>⌋ Chairman and CEO, ⌊>United Parcel Service>⌋, Inc.#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801780@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Shirley Ann Jackson>⌋ President, ⌊>Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute>⌋#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801790@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Minoru Makihara Senior Corporate Advisor and former Chairman, ⌊>Mitsubishi Corporation>⌋#⌋@@@@1@10@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801800@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Lucio Noto Managing Partner, Midstream Partners LLC#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801810@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>James W. Owens>⌋ Chairman and CEO, ⌊>Caterpillar Inc.>⌋#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801820@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Samuel J. Palmisano>⌋ Chairman, President and CEO, IBM#⌋@@@@1@8@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801830@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Joan Spero President, ⌊>Doris Duke>⌋ Charitable Foundation#⌋@@@@1@7@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801840@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#Sidney Taurell, Chairman and CEO, ⌊>Eli Lilly and Company>⌋#⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013
1000003801850@unknown@formal@none@1@S@⌊#⌊>Lorenzo Zambrano>⌋ Chairman and CEO, ⌊>Cemex>⌋ SAB de CV#⌋•⌋@@@@1@9@@oe@26-8-2013