96 American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 50 : 2 DICK H. FREDERICKSEN IBM THOMAS J. WATSON RESEARCH CENTER YORKTWON WIGHTS, NEW YORK 10598 ABSTRACT: This paper describes a loxical organization in which "scnscs" arc rcprcscnted in their own right, along with "words" and "phrases", by distinct data itcms. The objcctivc of the scheme is to facilitate recognition and employment of synonyms and stock phrases by programs which process natural la,nguage. Besides presenting the proposed organization, the paper characterizes thc lexical "senses" which result. - 1. Introduction. This paper describes an internal lexical organization which is particularly designed to capture the facts about synonymy. Besides recording the inclusion of each word in one or more synonym sets (identified with its various "senses"), the scheme attempts to distribute attributes per~picuously between "senses", "wordings", and the intersections of the two. In addition, there is provision to record multi-word idioms, stock phrases, and the like. and to include these as elements in synonym sets when appropriate. Briefly, "senses" are represented in their own right, along with "words" and "phrases", by distinct data items. Each word or phrase is associated with a list of the "senses" which it can express; conversely, each "sense" is associated with a list of "alternative wo iings" Additionally. each word is associated with a list of phrases in which it occurs. Grammatical category, features, selection restrictions, and the like are applicable at three different levels: to words or phrases as such, to "senscs" as such, or to particular usages of words or phrases (equivalently, to particular wordings of "senses"). An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses This lexical organization has been inlplemerlted at 1BM Research, Yorktown Heights, N.Y., by a program -- not to be described here -- which builds such dictionaries in a very compact form, giving interactive assistance to the person making the entries. (For cxaniple, the plrogram pdn ts out the possibility of merging "senses" whenever their wordings overlap and their attributes arc compatible, and merges them if so directed.) There are suitable I'acilities for saving the results, retrieving them in various ways, and for altering such things as sclienies of classification witlio~~~ scrapping previously prepared work. The ultimate intent is that the "dictionary of senses" should serve as the lexical coniponent in a natural language fact-retrieval system. Pending its incorporation in that rolc, it will be used to amass and organize information on the semantic relations among words and phrases. The balance of this paper conies in two sections: Section 2 presents the proposed lexical data structures, and suggests haw they arc to be used. Included is a sketch of how various types of grammatical anri semantic "attributes" fit into thc scheme. Section 3 discusses the character of the "senses" encoded in the resulting dictictlary. Reasons arc advanced for regarding lexical "senses" as something far short of semantic primitives. At the same time, synonym sets are defended against the view that "true paraphrases are rare or rtonexistcnt". An Organization far a Dictionary of Word Senses 2. The Internal Remesentation. It will be our purpose in this section to say just enough about internal representation to lay bare the organizing principles of the lexicon. The focus is on architecture afid motivations; details of field layouts, internal codes, etc. are not at issue here. To make the discllssion concrete, suppose we are interested in the senses of the word "changev Assuming that none of the words are unfamiliar, the following should put us in mind of two senses: change: 1. v alter; 2. n small coin. This, of course, is just a dictionary entry in the traditional format (though with synonyms offered in lieu of definitions), On the other hand, we might approach the same information from a different direction: starting with the two concepts, we might seek words to express them. It is difficult to picture this latter situation without assigning artificial labels to the concepts. Call them concepts 1 and 2, and suppose for a moment that there were a practical way to look the concepts up (witlzozlt having thought of either word for either concept). Then the information to be retrieved might be envisioned this way: I. v change, alter 2. n change, small coin It is this duality of viewpoint -- that words have senses, while senses have wordings -- that our lexical representation must reflect. The starting point, then, is that words, phrases, and "senses" are separately represented. There are three principal types of data item, plus a standard connector: 1. A "Key Data Item " (KDI) represent:; a single word. 2. A "Phrase Data Item" (PDI) represents a string of two or more words which are to

serve as a unit in some context.. An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 3. A "Sense Data Item" (SDI) represents one distinct sense common to a set of wordq and/or phrases. In general, a word or phrase may be usable in more than one sense, while a given sense may have alternative (synonymous) wordings. Both these types of variability are recorded making use of the next data item: 4. A "Sertse Link Element" (SLE) is a connective item, to be explained shortly. Three principal fields will engage our attention in each type of data item. Fig. 1 summarizes the fields for each type. i

"Phrase lnvol~einents"

Link "Component

Word"

Links "Sense Chain"

Link "Alternative Wordings"

Link "Alteynative Senses" Link

Global Attributes KDI (Key - - Data - Item) "Alternative Senses" Link

Global Attributes L PDI (Phrase - - Data - Item)

"Alternative Wordings" Link

Global Attributes SDI (Sense - - Data - Item)

Local

Attributes SLE (Sense - - Link - Element) "Alternative 'Senses" Link

Fig. 1 Schematic of Data Items, with Principal Contents Each KDI (Key Data Item) or PDI (Phrase Data Item) coiltains an "alternative senses" link -- al pointer to the first SLE (Sense Link Element) in a chain of SLE's which represent the various senses of the word or phrase. The SLE's are chained via their own "alternative senses" links, and the final member points back to the KDI or PDI. Thus, we shall speak of such a chain as a ring An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 6 specifically, an "alternative senses ring". If no senses are on record for a particular word ox phra , the "alternative senses" link in the KDI or PDI is ssl: referent. Reciprocally, each SDI (Sense Data Item) contahs an "alt-native wordings" link. This leads to a chain of SLE~S which represent more-or-less synonymous wordings mat express the sense. These SLE's are chained through their own "alternative wordink links, and again the chain is closed into a ring -- this time beginniog and ending with the SDI. The structure that is shaping up may now be seen in Fig. 2, The crtrcicrl poirir is that encll SLE represents the intersection betwen nn "alternntive sense^ ring nrrd an "cllterncirive wordi~rgs" ring. From the standpoint of the word or phrase, it; represents a particular scnse; from the standpoint of the sense, it represents a particular wordink Starting from a KDI or PDI, one gets to the SDI for a particular sense by advancing along the "alternative senses" ring to the relevant SLE, then &touring along the ring which connects t h~ latter to the SDI (as one of the SDI's "alternative wordings"). Starting from an SDI, one gets to a particular wording by the reverse process. Since each "alternative senses" ring contains exactly one KDI or PDI, while each "alternative wording#' ring contains exactly one SDI, each SLE is tied to exactly one sense of one word or phrase. (Eani~alently, it is tied to one wording of one sense.) The next point of interest is that "attribute" f'i~lds are present in all four types of data item -- even in the connectors (SLE's). The attributes which may be recorded in each, however, come from different bags. To begin with, the attributes found in an SDI characterize a11 the wordings of a given sense whenever the wording-, are used in that sense. In Fig. 2, for example, sense "I" should be marked as a "verb" sense, whil? sense "2" is a "noun". One would not wish to record the attribute "verb" in the KDI for the word "change", for the KDI represents facts about the word itself, irrespective of sense, and "verb" does no! 'hold for all uses of the word "change". On the other hand, "verb" does characterize all wordings of sense "I", whenever they're being employed to express that sense. It would furthermore apply to any additional wordings which we might think of, such as "modify", provided they are really used in a synonymous way. As a matter of fact, it turns out that the traditional parts of speech -- noun, verb, adjective, preposition, etc. -- fit best in this scheme as global attributes of senses, recorded ill the SDI's. An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses senses of "alter"

Fig. 2

"Alternative Senses" and "Alternative Wordings" Rings (The first sense has two wordings: "alter" and "change". The second sense has wordings "change" and "small coin". Two senses are recorded for "change", and one sense each for "alter'.' and "small coin".) A different sort of attribute may be recorded in a KDI, as a global feature of the word itself. For example, we may note of the word "change" that it is "regularly conjugated". That is, when used An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 8 as a verb, it forms the third person singular by adding "s", and both past ~ n d past participle by adding "ed" To be sure, this "global" attribute applies only to the "verb" senses of "change"; but a moment's reflection will confirm that "change" has more than one "verb" sense, and the regularity of its conjugation is common to all of them. Thus, it is useful to note this regularity as an attribute of the word itself. (Contrast this with the behavior of the word "can", which is regular whn it means "to pack in cans", but irregular when it means "is able to".) Various other attributes suggest themselves as global characterizers of the words thcn~selvcs, to bc recarded in the KDI's. For example, one might wish to note of "change" that it drops its final "e" whon adding "ing" (this is the normal rule) but of "singe" that it doesn't. Still other attributes are appropriate when characterizing multi-word units (in PDl's). A string of words whose meaning is not evident from the nlere juxtaposition of its constittlents (such as "givc up") may be classified as an "idiom", A string of words whose meaning could be figured out from the meanings of its constituents, but which occurs with enough frequency to warrant inclusion in the dictionary, might be classed as a "stock phrase". (Example: "drop dead".) A string like "perform in a subordinate role", which one would not normally expect to encounter in its own right, might be classed as a "definition" (for a certain sense of the word "accompany", difficult to reword except with a definition). Perhaps the most unexpected site for recording attributes is in the connective elements (SLE's). These are the logical place, though, to note features that apply to a specific sense of a word, without being global to either the sense or the word. Consider the following four senrenccs: On the way to the office, he stopped daydreaming. On the way to the office, he ceased daydreaming. On the way to the office, he ceased to daydream. versus: On thebway to the office, he stopped to daydream. Suppose we choose to view this as a restriction upon the (surface) object of the verb: "stop", when applied to an action, must take a gerund as its object; "cease" can take either a gerund or an infinitive. (It wouldn't affect the point being made if we said that "stop" inhibits a certain grammatical transformation en route to surface structure, while "cease" pennits it.) An Organization tur a Dictionary of Word Senses 9 Now, we wouldn't want to mark "gerund object only" as a global. attribute of the sense, for we have just shown that "cease" and "stop", two wordings of the sense, differ with respect to this restriction. On the other hand, it doesn't belong among the global attributes of the word "stop" as such, for "stop" has other verb senses, even transitive ones, tu which the restriction is completely inapplicable. (Consider "stop a hole in the dike", "stop a catastrophe", etc.) That leaves the alternative we are suggesting: treat the restriction as an attribute of one particular usage of thc word (equivalently, one particular wording of the sense). (1) "play" i KDl 1, "d~wn" KDI I "payment" KDI (Where numbers are shown on phrase which is linked to.) "play down" PDI (2) 'down payment" PDI (2)

Fig. 3 "Phrase Involvement" Rings connecting links, they indicate the position of the word in the 1. (1) 'I I I _ A An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 10 Besides having senses, individu~l words are involved in phrases, and this fact is also represented in our data structure. Fig. 3 shows the plan of attack. I'n the KDI for each word, there is a link connecting it to the PDI for the first phrase in which the word is known to occur, together with a number designating the position of the word (Ist, Znd, 3rd. etc.) in that phrase. In the PDI itself, there is a coiltinuation link for each word of the phrase, together with its niiri~ber in the next phrase. In the final PDI involving a given word, the link for that word points back to the KDI. Thus, independent of its "altcrnative senses" ring, each KDI tnay hmc r~ "phrase invol\~cit~ents" ring. This structure makes it possible to retrieve all the idioms, stock phrases, definitions, etc., in which a given word has made its appearance, anywhere in the dictionary. As the same structure is used to encode every multi-word unit, no occurrence of a word is ever lost sight of, and r~ phrase can be looked up via any of its constituent words. Of the fields to which Fig. 1 calls attention, we have discussed all but one. In the SDI for each "sense", tbpre is a "sense chain" link field. This links the SDI to its successor in a global chain of "senses". Using this chain, it is possible to make an exhaustive, non-duplicative list of all the "senses" recorded in the dictionary. The listing program has only to proceed down the chain, retrieve frdm each SDI its attributes, decode them, then chase around the "alternative wordings' ring of the SDI and list the wordings alongside the attributes. One more feature of the internal representation deserves mention: the data items for words occur as "leaves" in a lexical tree (Fig. 4). That is, the KDI for a word can be looked up letter-by-letter, following a chain of pointers that correspond to successive letters. The chain ends at a KDI after following a substring sufficient to distinguish the word fro111 the nearest thing like it in thc dictionary. The lexical tree has the advantage that words can be looked up either at random or in sequence. Recapitulating, these are the essential features of the representation: *1) "Senses" are represented separately from "wordings", and the mutual connections

between them are made explicit in both directions. *2) "Wordings" may be either single words or multi-word pnrases. I hese are representea by

distinct types of data item, and may be subject to distinct schemes of classification. but

they are on the same footing with regard to "sense" connections. With each word is

associated an exhaustive list of the phrases in which it occurs. An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses (start) I "monkey" B &, "above"

Fig. 4 Lexical Tree (For a dictionary containing only the words $( a Y ? , "above", "abate", and "monkey", this would be the full tree. The path to each word is only as long as needed to distinguish it from the neighbor with which it shares the longest leading substring.) *3) Classifiers and features, drawn from appropriate sets, may be attributed separately to words, to phrases, to senses, or to particular senses of words or phrases (i.e., to particular wordings of senses). *4) The data items which represent senses are globally chained, and may be exhaustively listed. An Organhation for a Dictionary of Word Senses *5) The data items which represent words are accessible as "leaves" of a lexical tree; hence they may either be retrieved by lookup (in response to presentation of the words) or volunteered in alphabetical order, Given a con~mitn~ent to repreiknt a lexicon as suggested by points * 1 through 9 tabovc, various implementations would be possible. Alternative implementations of individtlal points (though not of the scheme as a whole) have in fact been described by other writers. Tlte lexical tree (*S) , for example, is no great novelty: Sydney M Lamb and William H. Jacobsen describe implementation details of one such tree [SJ. [lo] also concerns a dictionary which uscs this general style of organization for lookup. For '.hat matter, the lexical tree is reminiscent of Fcigcrrbr~um's "discrin~ination tree." [ 11 More interestingly, the Separate representation of senses n11d wordings has been incorporated in othei. systems by R. F. Simnlons ([Ill, [12]) and by Larry R. Harris (31. This way of looking at matters led Harris to remark some of the same points that we have been stressing: that senses have alternative wordings just as words have alternative senses; that multi-word phrases might occur on the same footing as individual words in the expression of a sense; and (interestingly enough) that part-of-speech information really adheres to the "sense", not to the "word" Similarly, Simmons associates his "deep case" information with lexical nodes representing "wordsenscs",, while words the~nselves are treated as "print image" attributes of the wordsenses. Harris's dictionary was only a minor component in a small-scale model of concept acquisition. No great number of either words or concepts was required to illustrate the principles at stake, so Harris programmed the dictionary as an array, with words represented by rows and "concepts" by columns. Elements of the array were merely frequencies, indicating the strength of association between each word and each concept. Needless to say, for a full-scale vocabulary of words and concepts, such an array is mostly empty; nobody would dream of expanding it in that form. From a programming standpoint, the only thinkable choice is some form of list structure. Having decided in principle to use "some form of list structure", though, one might well ask: Why chains? Why rings? Why not just include in each Key Data Item a full list of pointers to the corresponding Sense Data Items. and vice-versa? The answer is simply one of convenience. It's easier to handle insertions and deletions when they don't require the movement of expanded items to new quarters, or the provision of "overflow" pointers. It's easier to reclaim freed storage when deleted items come in a handful of standard An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 13 sizes. As for "rings", they eliminate the need for two-way pointers, since one can break into a ring at any point and follow it to its source. It should be noted that to make rings an attractive representation, the details of the material being represented must cooperate, In particular, the rings must not become too long, or the processing requlred to follow them becomes excessive. It happens that "alternative senses" rings and "alternative wordings" rings are typically short rarely more than a dozen links per ring. "Phrase involvement" rings, on the other hand, can become spectacularly long, especially for words like "a*' and "to". In practice, it's necessary to provide these rings with short-cut links. Any of these, programming details could be altered, however, without abando~ting tltc ossencc of the scheme, which is given in points * 1 through *5 above. An OqginiZatioh for a Dictionary of Word Senses -- 3. The Character - of Lexical Senses. Pe~haps the first tljing to get straight about the "senses" represented in this dictionary is what they are not. They are aot "concepts"; they are not a set of "primitives" into which human espurlcncc an be decomposed, No conjecture is put forivard here [hot any such collcrtion of discrete, i~tr~riiic concepts even exists, let ulonc that it might be finite. Rather, the "senses" of the dictionary are in thc nr.urc of fuzzy equivalcncc sets among worcis. (This is only a metaphor; we shall do more and more violence to thc ttchnicul notion of an "equivalence set" as we proceed.) Each "sense" groups n set of words which, in n set of appr:~priate cu.ntexts; might be tiscd ~nore or less intcrchangenbly. That the cq\livalenct. sots arc fu7'r.y. nrie can convir~cc otleself with but the briefest im~~~crsion in the r~lntcrials of thc. lang~i~p~ -- trying to decide whether particular words belong in particular groups or justiPi\~ the crcr~tion of new groups. Consider, for example, the following set of words and phrases:

(abandon, give up, surrender, relinquish, let go. desert, leave, forsake, abdicate) Clearly, there is a common theme that can run through all of these, given the right circumstances. It might be expressed as "reluctant parting from somebody or something". This can be seen by coupling the verbs with var.ious possible objects:

(abandon, give up, surrender) a town to the enemy

(abandon, give up) all hope

(give up, relinquish) one's claim to an estate

(give up, let go) our entire stock at a loss

(abandon, desert, leave) one's wife and children

(desert, forsake) a friend in need

(give up, abdicate) the throne An Organhtion for a Dictionary of Word Senses (abandon, desert) an exhausted mine (forsake, give up) all other, keeping thee only to her/him (abandon, desert, leave) the area threatened by the storm Should we, then, declare this group of words to be a "sense"? There are difficulties. The various words carry nuances, which it may or may not be easy to ignore in a particular context, "Forsake", for example, can suggest that there is something reprehensible about the action. It can also connote formal renunciation, and the above example from a marriage vow shows that the formality can be present without the reprehensibility. Nuances get in the way of interchangeability; it would sound strange to substitute "desert" into the marriage vow. Besides nuances, the individual words have conventional areas of application. One does not normally say that the doctors "deserted" all hope, or that an errant husband "surrendered" his wife and children. The minister officiating at a wedding would be considered daft if be adjured the bride and groom to "abdicate" all others, and a merchant would not advertize that he was "relinquishing" his entire stock at a loss. (Somehow, the larkr situaaon calls for more pedestrian language.) At the opposite extreme, overawed by this lack of interchangeability, we might decide to respect the unique personality of each word, abolishing equivalenioe classes altogether. The inconvenience of such a cop-out is obvious: we then have to introduce some other mechanism for recognizing the equivalence of utterances that are intended synonymously, though they employ different words. But beyond being inconvenient, the exclusion of equidence sets is a denial of linguistic facts -just as bad, in its own way, as the naive attribution of unconditional synonymy. For it is a commonplace of everyone's experience that the speaker and the listener agree to ignore the nuances of words, whenever nuances get in the way of communication. A writer who has used the word "give up" eight times in five lines will surely cast about for some alternative ways of saying the same thing. If "relinquish" and "abandon" would normally be too flowery, or if "mender" would in other circumstances call to mind an armistice ceremony in a railway wagon. that will not deter the writer from tossing in a few occurrences of those words -- once a context has been established that discourages the overtones. Nor will the reader understand matters any differently. It is as if writer and reader conspired: "We're fed up with that word, let's hear another." Or, perhaps, the writer simply connives at jolting the reader awake with frequent changes of idiom, maybe even an occasional incongruity. En any case, synonymy is imposed upan An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 16 the words, and this literary behavior merely exaggerates what people do habitually in cbmmon speech. Not only can words be stripped of nuances normally present; they can toke on colorations suggested by the context. The suggestion of "reluctance" conveyed by all thc verbs of our example can be inferred, in at least one case, from the setting alone; and in this case, a variety of rnorc neutral verbs could be used synonymously: (part with, take leave of) our entire stock at a loss One could even substitute the word "sell", and it wouldn't change the meaning that was already bad into the utterance. But to adnlit contest-dependent synonyniy of this clcgrcc is to strctch the equivalence sets" to thc point of uselessness. It comes to this: neither the grouping nor the separation of words can be fully justified. Grouping is nearly always conditional, and separation is often so. If one could anticipate all possible contexts in which a group of words could occur, one could perhaps enumerate all possible equivalence sets -- one for each combination of word group with a set of contexts making the words interchangeable. Anyone, however, can see the futility of that aspiration. In the end, one settles for messy compromises. Words are grouped if a largish set of contexts in which they are interchangeable springs readily to mind. They are separated (into perhaps overlapping groups) if the imagination readily suggests contexts in which their meanings differ "significantly" -- whatever "significantly" may mean. In doubtful cases, when words are grouped somewhat questionably, one promises oneself to add markings some clay that will prevent misuse of the equivalence. When words are separated somewhat questionably, one promises oneself to add a mechanism some day that will recognize their relatedness. In the end, too, one assigns internal structure to the equivalence sets. That's the effect of assigning local attributes to the alternative wordings ("animate subject", "object a vehicle", etc.): constraints are imposed upon the interchangeability of the wordings. More radical structuring can be accomplished if, for example, one notes "government" as an alternative wording of the sense "govern, rule, control", with the attribute "nominalization". A trenchant discussion of such difficulties may be found in Kelly and Stone [4]. There the emphasis is upon disambiguation: given a word in a passage of text, they seek to identify (by selection from a fixed list of possibilities) the sense in which it is used. Building a computerized An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses dictionary for the purpose, they soon became concerned with the arbitariness and the proliferation of target "senses", as taken from standard desk dictionaries. They argue, with persuasive examples, that what lexicographers conventionally distinguish as separate senses of a word are often just applications of the word's underlying concept to different contexts. To cover the various contexts, the underlying concept has to be stretched a little, by a process of metaphoric extension. This metaphoric process is beyond our present power to computerize, but for 'the long run looks indispensable for successful language processing. Meanwhile, the authors advocate a dictionary which records for each word as few discrete senses as practicable, combining into one scnsc all the usages which can reasonably be united by a common underlying thougl~t. It is interesting to re-examine Kelly and Stone's argument with a diffcrent task in n~inii: not tile disambiguation of one word, but the recognition of synonymy between two words. A n~etaphorical capability would be as useful for the one task as for the other, but in the case of synonynl rccognition, some of the considerations which have guided traditional lexicography remain pertinent. In particular, it is necessary to ask not merely whether the concepts overlap, but whether the one word may in fact be used in place of the other. As noted before, usage is restricted by conventional domaitls of application; for example, an "alteration" is conceptually both a "change" and a "modification", but one wouldn't call it a change or a modification when painting a sign for a tailor's shap. The arbitrariness of the equivalence sets is not all that disqualilies then1 as "conceptual primitives". There is a much deeper difficulty in the fact that practically all "senses" can be paraphrased in terms of other "senses". Take, for example, the intransitive sense of "change" (as in "My, but you've changed!"). Surely, one would suppose, the concept of "change" must be primitive? Change of state is what well-nigh a third of all verbs are about. But if "change" is a "primitive", it's a peculiar sort of "primitive", for it can be paraphrased in a variety of ways: (change, become different, cease to be the same, assume new characteristics, make a

transition into a new state) Note that the multi-word paraphrasals are not idioms; the individual words contribute their usual meaqings to concatenated meanings which express the concept "change". An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 18 But perhaps we were merely unlucky? Perhaps we chanced upon a concept which looked elemental but actually turned out to be complex. Maybe the real primitives are "become", "be", "cease", "different", "same", etc. Let's dig into that possibility. What does it mean to "become X", where X is an adjective? The meaning can bc \~ario\isly expressed: (become X, come to bq X, get to be X, get X, turn X, grow X, assume thc charrtctcristic X) That's a discouraging number of ways for a "primitive" to be re-expressible -- though if we choose to regard "come to be" and "get to be" as idiomatic concatcnr\tions of words, only onc of the alternatives makes use of other concepts to explain the one at hand. As for "different", it implies a whole underlying anecdote about sortlebody making a contparisoi~, after first making a judgment about relevant things to compare. In the combination of the two concepts -- "become different" --, we furthermore drop mention of the objects being compared. It's simply understood that they are certain attributes of the subject at two points in time. It is tempting to invent ad-hoc "transformational" explanations for these phenomena. One might conjecture, for example, tliat "The man changed." is a surface realization of four underlying sentences:

(Man be X at time m. Man be Y at time n. X not equal Y, Time n greater-than time n~.) Thetrouble with explanations of this sort -- apart from the fact that they introduce growing complexity into the understanding of straightforward utterances -- is that they assign arbitrary primacy to some concepts at the expense of others. Why should

"time n greater-than time m" be an assumed primitive? May we not equally well conjecture that "time n greater-than time m" is a surface realization of these?:

(Time be m. Time change. Then time be n.)

For that matter, why not view An Organization for a Dictibnary of Word Senses "Time elapsed. " as a surface form of this?: "At least one thing in the universe changed." After all, what is "time" but a nominalized way of talking about the presence and partitioning of change? The difficulty, it would seem, lies in the very notion of context-independent "conceptual primitives". The metaphor itself is at fault: it calls to mind a fixed set of dements, like thosc of which matter is composed, out of which all ideus must be compounded. But where concepts arc concerned, primitivity is a matter of focus, Shift the perspective a little, and new elenlcnts swim into view as fundamentals, while former simples become con~plex. A more promising metaphor is the analogy to a 'vector space. A set of basis vectors is, in a way, a set of "primitives" out of which all the entities in the space can be composed. These primitives have the appealing property that they are only primitive relative to one frame of reference. Rotatc your point of view, and what used to come natural as basis vectors are now at an angle; they become easier to express as sums of vectors that lie along new axes. That bears a resemblance to what we have seen,in tlhe case of lexical "primitives". Thus far and no further may the analogy be pushed, however. The elements which span "conceptual space" can be no such uniform set of objects as those in a vettor space, while the rules of composition are coextensive with grammar -- at a minimum. Composition of concepts itself contributes to the meaning. (For that matter, it is arguable whether concepts are sufficiently separable to model them as discrete objects at all -- whether simple or composite.) Moreover as "conceptual space" must encompass all things thinkable, the rules of composition must themselves be part of the space. That is, the operators as much as the things operated upon lie within the space to be spanned. A seming counterexample to these remarks may be found in the "primitive ACT's" of conceptual dependency theory, as propounded by Schank, Goldman, Rieger, and Riesbeck (121, [7], [8], [9]). On a close reading, however, the "primitive ACT's" turn out to be verb paradigms -- powerful, semantically motivated generalizations about large classes of verbs. The names of these paradigms replace specific verbs as building blocks in the "conceptual" representation of an utterance. The An manbation f ~ a r Dictionary of Word Senses 2 0 effect is to provide strong guidelines for the inference of unstated information, for the comparison of related utterances, for paraphrasal, etc. TO represent a particular verb in terms of these ACT's, however, it is necessary to augment each ACT with various substructures which detail the manner, the means, the type of actor or object, etc. No reduced set of representatives is as yet offered for the adverbs, nouns, adjectives, etc. in terms of which the "primitive ACT's" are qualified. If such additional condcnsntion werc attempted, the elaboration of a given utterance in terms of the full set of "primitives" might well ramify without practical end. In other words, reduction of the set of names L'or nodes (and labels for arcs) must be purchased at the expense of extending the number of them required to represent each utterance, In conceptual dependency representation, just as in the sernantic networks" of Quillinn [6], Simmons ([I I], [12]), Slocum, and others, reality ultimately appears as a shimmering web, every part of which trembles when any part of it is touched upon. Taken in its totality, the system -- as yet -- is entirely compatible with skepticism about a corrrprehensive set of "conceptual primitives" In any case, the verbal "senses" proposed here lie at a far lower level of generality than the "primitive ACT's" used in conceptual dependency theory. In terms of that theory, they come closest to the so-called "CONCEXICON entries" used by Goldman in realizing surface expressions 'of a concept from its conceptual representation [2]. Given a primitive ACT, Goldman narrows it down to a particular "CONCEXICON" entry by applying the tests in a discrin~ination tree to the rest of the structure in which the ACT appears. Our lexical "senses", therefore, are lcft with a humbled role. If they span anything, it might best be thought of as "communication space", not "conceptual space". Even in this light, they arc a hugely redundant basis, and a not at all unique one. They form no inventory of the experiences being communicated about; "meaning" is still a step removed, still evoked rather than embodied by the elements of this basis. If we persist in calling these things "senses", it is because that is the traditional term for what is brought to mind as the synonym sets of a given word are enumerated. The tie-in with meaning is tenuous, but the human user is able to supply it. There is at least this much justification for the term: synonym sets, more forcefully than words, direct attention to the points at which a tie-in must be made between the tokens of communication and the underlying representation of "world knowledge" An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 2 1 In a full-fledged system for processing natural language, then, we must envision the "dictionary of senses" as a component stretching vertically across the "upper" layers. Its "sense data items" must link, ifi some way, to the deeper-lying data structures which encode "knowledge of the world" (the "pragmatic component"). The "key data items" and "phrase data items" register tokens to be expected or employed in "surfzrce" utterances. Global and local attributes recorded in the various data items guide parsing and interpretation. Where one takes it froin there depends upon thc linguistic approach to be used. An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses References: [I] Feigenbaum. Edward A. (1963), "Simulation of Verbal Learning Bchaviot", in Cnniplrrrrs and T/lotcglzt, eds. E, A. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, McGrnw Hill, [2] Goldman, Neil (1 975), "Sentence Paraphrasing from a Conceptual Base", Cor?rr?~llrric.nriori.s c!f' the ACM, February, 1975, Vol. 18 No. 2. [3] Harris, Larry R. (1972), "A Model for Adaptive Problem Solving Applies to Natural Language

Acquisition", Corneli U~iiversity, Ithaca, N.Y. PB-2 1 1 378. [4] Kelly, Edward, and Stone, Philip (1975). "Computer Recognition of English Word Senses",

Chapter IV, North-Holland Publishing Co, Amsterdam. [S] Lamb, Sydney M., and Jacobsen, William H., Jr. (1966), "A High-speed Large-Capacity

Dictionary System", in Readings irz Atrtoniatic Lar~glrage Processirzg. ed. David G. Hays,

American Elsevier Publishing Company, New York. [6] Quillian, M. Ross (1968), "Semantic Memory", in Serttnmtic Irljornzntior~ Processirlg. ed. Marvin Min~ ky, The MlT Press, Cambridge. Massachusetts. [7] Schank, R., Goldman, N., Rieger, C., and Riesbeck, C. (1973), "Margie: Memory, Analysis,

Response Generation, and Inference on English", Proceedings. Third Iniet+nationaI Joint

Conference on Artficial Intelligence. Stanford Research Institute, Stanford, CaIifcrnia. 181 Schank, Roger C. (1973), "Identification of Conceptcalizations Underlying Natural

Language", in Compzcter Models of Thought and Language, eds. R. Sctrank and K Colby.

W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco. [9] Schank, Roger C. (1973), "The Conceptual Analysis of Natural Lang-iage", in Nartrrai

Language Processing, ed. Randall Rustin, Algorithrnics Press, Inc., New York. An Organization for a Dictionary of Word Senses 23 [lo] Schmidt, Charles T. (1970); "A Dictionary Structure for Use with an English Language Preprocessor to a Computerized Information Retrieval System", Naval Postgraduate School, hionterey, California. AD 710 363. [ll] Simmons, R. F., and Slocum, J. (1972), "Generating English Discourse from Sc~nantic Networks", Communicatiorts of the ACM, October 1972, Vol. 15 No. 10. [I23 Simmons, R.F. (1973), "Semantic Networks: Their Computation and Use.for Understanding English Sentences", in Contputer Models of Ti~ought arid Langtlage. eds. R. Schank and K. Colby, W. H. Freelnan & Co., Sa11 Francisco. American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 50 : 24 C U R R E N T B I B L I O G R A P H Y Despite repeated predictions to the contrary, both the selection of material for this issue and the choice of subject categories are tentative. The Editor and his collaborators have found the reconstruction of intellectual and mechanical systems more onerous than they had expected. Completeness of coverage, especially for reports circulated privately, depends on the cooperation of authors. Summaries or articles to be summarized should be sent to the editorial office, Twin Willows, Wanakah, New York 14075. Many summaries are authors' abstracts, sometimes edited for clarity, brevity, or completeness. Where possible, an informative summary is provided. The Informatheque de linguistique de ilUniversite d'ottawa, Dermot Ronan F. Collis, Director, provides a portion of odr entries. AJCL gratefully acknowledges the assistance of J. Beck, B. Harris, and D. Castonguay. See the following framfor a list of subject headings with frame numbers. SUBJECT HEADINGS GENERAL . . . . . . . . . 26 COMPUTATION . . . . . . . Chinese . . . . . . . . . 35 Programming . . . . . . . 70 PHONETICS . PHONOLOGY . . 36 Languages . . . . . . . 71 Recognition . . . . . . . 38 Pictorial Systems . . . . 72 Chinese . . . . . . . . 43 DOCUMENTATION . . . . . . 73 WRITING . . . . . . . . . 44 Classification . . . . . 76 Recognition . . . . . . . 44 Retrieval . . . . . . . . 76 Chinese . . . . . . . . 45 TRANSLATION . . . . . . . 76 Syrithesis SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 79 Chinese . . . . . . . . 46 Anthropology . . . . . . 82 Text Input Chinese . . . . . . . . Character sets

Chinese . . . . . . . . Chinese . . . . . . . . . LEXICOGRAPHY . LEXICOLOGY Statistics . Text Handling Dialectology Thesauri . GRAMMAI; . . . Generator . . SEMANTICS - DISCOURSE . Memory Question An . swering . Text Grammar . . . . . LINGUISTICS Methods . . . Mathematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 50 54 56 57 58 58 59 60 60 67 67 Psychology

Learning HUMANITIES Concordance Analysis . INSTRUCTION BRAIN THEORY ROBOTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 84 85 86 86 88 91 GENERAL Putnam and Clarke and Mind and Body Yorick Wilkes Arti f icial Intelligence Laboratory, Stan ford Brilish Journal for the Philosophy of Science 26:213-225, Seprrrnber I975 lSSN 0007-0882 Putnam argues for a satirical privacy for machines by asserting that, just us it makes no sense to ask John how he knows that he is in pain, so it makes no sense to ask a Turing Machine (TM) how it knows that it is in stnte n. When addressed to an abstract Tb1 the question is absurd, but not when addressed to a physically realized TM. Putiirlm equivocates about the notion of stnte, discussirig only abstract TM's when introducing the notion of state, but making an argument which is cohcrer~t only with respect ot a physicaliy renli~cd TM. There is thus, in effect, n cot)fusion between 'state' as of an ai1t0111;lt Y n rind 'stnte' as of a real machine which is executing a program which rcalizes that automaton--any of a iiun~ber of states of the machine might correspond to one state of the nutonlaton embodied in the progranl. Thus Putnam's argument fails. Clarke's criticisms of Putnam are rilisguided but instructive. A more serious notion of ir~achine privacy can be constructed by noting that it is impossible to inter the machine's real activitity deterrninately from the content of registers. GENERAL A Graphical Programming System with Speech Input Chacko C. Ncroth University of California, Berkeley Computers & Grapltics I:227-231, 1975 The experimental problem solving environrnen t is one of formulating specifying, debugging and executing (algebraic) procedures interactively on a small processor. The speech recognition system is a real time, syntax directed, limited vocabulary, highly cost effective scheme specifically tailored to this environment. The data transformation operations of the language are verbally specified and the control flow is specified graphically as a twodimensional directed graph. The semantics of the latter structure is independent of the time sequence of its input. An input restricted (conditional input) pseudo-finite state machine model is used for the continuous syntax checking of the input on an atomic token basis and for directing the speech recognizer. GENERAL Computerized Natural Language Information System Stewart N. T. Shen Computer Science Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Stare University, Blacksburg S. Goald, Ed., Proceedings of rhe First International Symposium on Computers and Chinese Inpur/Otr~put Systems, Academia Sinica, 573-588 General problems in NL processing are discussed and a methodology is presented. A NL system should consist of a supervisory module which reads and interprets certain input sentences stated in some specific way. These serttences tell the systern what kind of job is being done. The system would have various syntactic, semantic, and praglnatic processing modules available to it. Technological developmel~ls may well niake it practical for iridividuals to have CNLlS (Cotrputerizcd Piatural Language Inforniution System) terminals in their homes. A typic4 user terrninal may include a microcornp~~ter an interactive TV, and an electric typewriter. In the computerization of Chinese, a simplification of the written characters is urged. GENERAL Design Concepts of Chinese Language Data Processing Systems Yaohan Chu, Chu Deparlrnent oJ Computer Science, Vniversit), of Maryland, College Park S. Could, Ed ., Proceedings of the First l n 1 ernational Syr?lposium on Computers and Chinese 1 npur /Output Systems, Academia Sinica, 117-136 Five types of Chinese language data processing systems are discussed. 1) Accept assembly code in English and hand-coded Chinese data and use an expanded subroutine library. 2) Accept assembly code and data, both in Chinese. by adding a pre-assembler and translators to the manufacturer-supplied assembler and linkage editor. 3) Accept a high-level Chinese programming language and Chinese data. 4) Those which use the Chinese-language-oriented postfix string as the machine language. 5) In which the high-level language itself is the machine language (i.e. one-level language). This type of data processing system has no intermediate language, no assembly language, no relocatable language, and no absolute language. GENERAL 28 Design Philosophy of a Chinese-Oriented Computer John Y. Hsu Departrner~t of Cornpuler Scien a Slatistics, Calijornia Polyt~chnic Store University, Son Luis Obispo S. Gould, Ed ., Proceedings of the First Internntioncll .7yrttposil~rll on Conlpi; tets or~d Chinese Input /Olitput Systertts, Accrdemia Sinicn, 135-150 Basic design philosophy of a Chinese-oriented cornpnter includes consideration of the idiosyncrasies of silch a computer, The following topics are d~sci~ssrd: 1) I11 tt'rnal coding of Chiriese characters, 2) Chirlese Input/Output devices, 3) Instruction Kcpertorie to hl;~nipulnte Chinese Characters, arid 4) Miscellaneous. The design approach toward such a Chineseoriented cornpiiter is also comniented on. GENERAL Is Technology Ready for Chinese/Japanese Data Processing h. J. Crecnblott, and M. Y, Hsiao I BM Yougkkeepsie, New Yurk S. Gould, Ed., Proceedirlgs of the Firsr Internatior~nl S~mposiurn on Computers orrd Chinese Input /Ouipur Sysrems, Acndenia Sini'ca, 1.51-16 1 The technology for the computer processing of Chinese characters on a large scale is almost around the corner. The major bottleneck is the training required to key in 5,000 different Chinese characters quickly and correctly by either a set of keyboards or some cleverly combined coded form or keyboard design. Advances in LSI technology. mechanical or magnetic keys, CRT, etc., will all contribute to the realilation of a d3t3 processing system capable of handling ideographic languages. An automatic pattern recognition system was not chosen to represent the major future trend because its technical development is still b'eyond the level of practical large scale implementation. GENERAL Conversation, Cognition and Learning Gordon Pask Sysfem Research kd., Richmond, Surrey, England Elsevier, Inc., Amsl-erdarn and New York, 1975, $37.00/Dfl 96.00, xii + 570 pages, ISBN 0444-4 1193-3 This book describes a theory of man/man or madmachine conversations and cognitive processes (with emphasis upon the dynamics of learning and teaching at an individual level) together with several special experimental methods and practical applications. Most of the illustrations and data supporting the argument stem from education, course design, and similar fields and the material is relevant to epistemology, subject matter organis:~tion, as well as such disciplines as pedagogy, computer aided instruction etc. Some experiments, however, deal with laboratory learning and the acquisition of perceptual motor skills, and an attempt is made to identify the theory and methods wrth inany standard paradigms in social and experimental psychology. An account of consciousness and self-reference is given in the theory, GENERAL Information Processing and Cognition: The Loyola Symposium Robert L . Solso. editor Loyola University of Chicago Halsted Press Division. John Wi1e.y & Sons. New York. 1975 ISBN 0-470-81230-3 HC $.19.95 Con tents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi SECTION 1 I MEMORY. PERCEPTION. AND DECISION IN LETTER IDENTIFICATION. W . K . Estes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Apparent Effects of World Context on Perception of Letters . . . . . . . . . . .

Detection Procedures and Revival of the Redundancy Hypothesis . . . . . . . . .

The Postexposure Probe Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

An Interpretation of the Role of Positional Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . .

Levels of Information Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Model for Levels of lnfornlation Processing in Letter Identification . . . . . .

1 nterpretations of Em pi rical Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

References 3 6

9 16 18 19 22 2 STUDIES OF VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING IN MAN. M . S . Mayzner . . 31 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Currer~t Hardware System and Associated Software Package . . . . . . . . . . . 34 General Research Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 A Brief Review of Sequential Blanking and Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Dynamic Visual Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Dynamic Visual Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 GENERAL 31 Subjective Color Experiences Associated with Dynamic Visual Movement . . . . . Pattern Recognition Mechanisms as Found in Overprinting Paradigms . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3 ATTENTION AND COGNITIVE CONTROL. Michael I . Posner and Charles R . R Snyder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Automatic Pathway Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A View of Conscious Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strategies and Conscious Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Place of Value in a Judgment of Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 FORM. FORMATION. AND TRANSFORMATION OF INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS. Roger N . Shepard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Some Central Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Summary of Some Experimental Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Theoretical Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Acknowledgments and Historical Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 SECTION I1 Negative Recency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Related Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 124 1'16 143 GENERAL 6 ENCODING. STORAGE. AND RET'RIEVAL OF ITEM INFORMATION. Bennet B Murdock. Jr . and . Rita E . Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Retrieval at Short and Long Lags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 7 WITHIN-INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN "COGNITIVE" PROCESSES. Willian~ F . Battig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some Questions about Current Cognitive Research Practices . . . . . . . . . . Processing Differences within Individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Serial Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paired- Associate Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Verbal-Discrimination Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Free-Recall Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 CONSCIOUSNESS: RESPECTABLE. USEFUL. AND PROBABLY NECESSARY. George Mandler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Revival of Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conscious Contents and P~ocesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Limitation of Conscious Capacity and the Flow of Consciousness

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISCUSSION: SECTIONS I AND 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENERAL SECTION Ill 9 MEMORY REPRESENTATIONS OF TEXT. Walter Kintsch . . . . . . . . . . . 269 A Model for Episodic Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Some Remarks on Text Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Memory for Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Answering Questions about a Text from Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Matches at Linguistic and Propositional Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Postscript: List Learning and Text Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 *10 COMPUTER SIMULATION OF A LANGUAGE ACQUlSTlON SYSTEM: A FIRST REPORT. John R . Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Formal Results on Grammar Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Role of Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rationale for the Research Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Program LAS.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bracket.. The Graph-Deformation Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

An Example of Grammar Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Assessnient of LAS.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Generalizations about Noun Phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Prediction about Language Learnability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 SEMIOTIC EXI'ENSION. David McNeill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Study of Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Production Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ontogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Evidence for this Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 296 299 301 302 317 361 GENERAL 34 Further Evidence for the Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Other Influences on Word Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Emergence of Patterned Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Semiotic Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Gestures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 12 THE CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REPRESENTATIONS INVOLVING LINEAR ORDER. Tom Trabasso and Christine A . Riley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Problem Origins: the Development of Transitive Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . Training Results: Serial Position Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing Results: Memory and Inference Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stochastic Retrieval Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Occurs in Training: The Serial-Position Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Occurs in Testing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reaction-Time Experiments: Six-Term Series Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . Linear Order Is Independent of Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of A Linear-Order Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accessing A Linear Order: Strength or Distance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DISCUSSION: SECTION 111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *This article has been abstracted under SOCIAL-BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE: PSYCHOLOGY on this fiche. 385 386 388 392 394 395 399 400 401 407 409 411 GENERAL 35 Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Computers and Chinese Input/Output Systems Academia Sinica, xiii + 1331 pages The Symposium was held on August 14-16, 1973 at Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China. Many of the papers have been abstracted elsewhere on this microfiche. GENERAL: CHINESE Interactive Processing of Chinese Characters and Texts J. T. Tou, J. C. Tsay, and J, K. Yoo Center for In forrriatics Research, University of Florida, Gainsville S. Could, Ed., Proceedings of the First International Syrnposium on Computers and Chinese Inpur/Uurput Systems, Academia Sinica 1-28 The system provides a tool to teach pupils how to write Chinese ideographs, how to make proper pronunciations, and how to translate into a foreign language. and features dynamic display of characters. The system can also perform text-editing operations. Techniques for Chinese character representation, based on chain codes for stroke sequence, and dictionary generation, in which each character of subcharacter is represented as a subroutine in the dictionary, are introduced. Text-edi ti ng routines are discussed and the paper concludes With an illustrations of text-editing operations. The final edited text can be transcribed from the display scope for making hard copies. The system will be further developed for editing maps, for typesetting and for use as a Chinese typewriter. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY A Small Computer in the Phonetics Laboratory Claes-Christian Elert Professor of Phonetics, Umea University, Sweden World Papers in Phonetics, The Phonetic Society of Japan, Tokyo, 145- 162, 1974 With adequate programming facilities at hand the phonetician would be able to make his table-top coniputer perform pratically everything that was done earlier by conventional equipment for analysis and registration. In addition, data may be stored for automatic processing, atid sequences of events, such as qunli tative or quan ti trltive variations of parameters or stimuli in experiments with human subjects, can be governed l~ccording to a pre-set program, or by incoming signals of random pulses. Topics considered: 1) the nature of available equipment, 2) programming, 3) speech analysis, 4) speech spnthesis, 5) the computer in experimental work, 6) dir\lcctology and phonology, 7) teaching phonetics. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY A Study of Time-Domain Speech Compression by Means of a New Analog Speech Processor Depar~nlenf u f EIectrical Engineering, Sran ford Universi~y, Slanford, California 94305 Journal of the Audio Engineering SociPly 23:713-721, November I975 Time-domain speech compression using the SDA (sample, discard, about) procedure at compression ratios of 0.25 to 0.75 is studied by means of a new analog speech processor and minicomputer algorithms. Fourier transform methods have been used to establish a correspondence between the quality of the reconstructed compressed speech waveforms and the subjective recognition of compressed speech. The result of two psychoacot~stic experiments indicate that 1) the interruption frequency should be equal to the pitch frequency of the voice waveform for optimum recognition of the compressed speech, and 2) smoothing of the discontinuities with electronic techniques significantly improves the recognition of the compressed speech. The optimum smoothing parameters, window width and characteristic function, are also obtained from this study. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY 37 On the Characteristics of Individual Vowels and the Statistical Characteristics of Formant Frequency Patterns in Connected Speech Y oshbari Kanamori Research lns~itufe o/ Elecirical Communication, Tohoku Universily, Sendai 980, Japan Sysrems - Compurers - Conrrols, 6, No. 1:22-30, 1975 The loci of formant frequency patterns of vowels in many kinds of CVC contexts were represented in FI-F? space. The areas enclosing these loci were obtained for each vowel. The positions of vobels in connected speech lie inside an area surrounded by the isolated vowels because of the neutralization sf vowels io connected speech. The faster the speaking r3 c, the more the areas tend to concentrate deeper inside. Also, the areas of individual vowels overlap each other and the Caster the speaking rate, the more the overlapping areas increase. The overlapping areas were estimated in FI-F2 space and, to investigate the effect of F in F1;F2-FJ space. The distribution of F is nearly approximated by the normal densi ? y funct~on, because the effect on imbalance o? the vowel occurrence frequencies is not clearly observed in the frequency distribution of F3. Areas reflecting the bound of articulatory movement in the acoustic domain were obtained from the loci of formant frequencies represented in F1-FZ and FI-F3 spaces. We conclude with a comparison of the discussed areas and those obtained from the artlculatsry model by Lindblorn. Epoch Extraction of Voiced Speech 'r. V. Anathapadnlannbha, and B. Yegnanarayana Deparrrnenr of Eleckrical Communication Er~gineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangolore 5600 12, India IEEE Transactions on Acousrics, Speech, and Signal Processing 23362-570, December 1975 A general theory of epoch extraction d overlapping nonidentical waveforms is presented and applied to outputs of models of voiced speech production (model 1, impirlse excitation of a two-resonator system; model 2, glottal wave excitation of a two-resonator system) and to actual speech data. Some typical glottal waveshapes are considered to explain their effect of the speech output. The points of excitation of the vocal tract can be precisely identified for continuous speech and it is possible to obtain accurate pitch information by this method even for high-prtched sounds. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION Real-Time Digital Hardware Pitch Detector Ronald W. Schafer Department of Electrical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta 30332 John J. Dubnowski, and Lawrence R. Rabiner Bell Laboratories, Murraj) Hill, New Jerse-y 07974 IEEE Trnnsactions on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing 24:2-8, February 1976 A high-quality pitch detector has been built in digital hardware and operates ill real time at a 10 kHz snrnpli~ig rate, The hardware is cnpahle of providing energy as well as pitch-period estim;ltes. l'he pitch arid energy cr~mputatioris ;Ire pcrfornied 100 tin~es/s (1.t3'., orice pcr 10 ms interval). 'T'he slgrari thn~ to estinlnte the pitch period uses cell ter clipping, infinite peak clipping, nrld n sirripl if ied nutocorrelation analysis. 'l'htl nnalysis is pc'rforriied on a 300 sample section of spccch which is botti center clipped iind irlfirlite peuh clipped, yielding a three-level speech signal where the levels are -1, O, arid +1 depending on the relation of the originill speech ample to the clipping threshold. Thus computation of the sutocorretation function of the clipped speech is easily inipler;-\en tsd in digital hardware using simple cori1bin3torial logic, i.e., an up-down counter can be used to conipute each correlation point. A Comparison of Three Methods of Extracting Resonance Information from Predictor-Coeficient Coded Speech Randall L. Cl~ristcnscn Naval Weapons Cenler, Chino. Lake, cbli~ornia 93555 William .I. Strong, and E. I'aul Palr~ier Department oj' Ph.vsics and Astronony, Brighnrn Young University, Prov~, Utah 84602 IEEE Transactions on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing 24:s-14, February 1976 The methods: finding roots of the polynomial in the denominator of the transfer function using Newton iteration, picking peaks in the spectrum of the transfer function. and picking peaks in the negative of the second derivative of the spectrum. A relationship was found between the bandwidth of a resonance and the magnitude of the second derivative peak. Data. accumulated from a total of about two minutes of running speech from both female and male talkers, are presented illustrating the relative effectiveness of each method in locating resonances. The second-derivative method was shown to locate about 98 percent of the significant resonances while the simple peak-picking method located about 85 percent PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION A Method for the Correctio of Garbled Words Based on the Levenshtein Metric Tcruo Okuda Systems Design Section, Systetns Developmeni Depurtmenl, Fujirsu Limited, Kawasaki, Japan Eiichi Tanaka, and Tamotsu Kasai Department of Electrical Engineering, Facul~y of Engineering, Universify of Osaku Prefecture, Sokai, Japan lEEE Transactions of Computers 25:172-178, February 1976 Using a method for correcting garbled words based on Levenshtein distance and weighted Levenshtein distance we can correct substi trrtion errors, insertior~ errors, ar~d delection errors. According to the results of computer simulation on nearly 1000 high occurrence English words, higher error correcting rates can be achieved by this method thn~i any other method tried to date. Short words remain a problem; solving it will probably requite utilization of contextual information, Hardware realization of the method is possible, though coniplicated. PWNETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNlTlCfN Speaker-ldentifying Features Based on Formant Tracks Ursula C. Goldstein Departnlent 01 El~ctrical Engineeriug and Computer Science and Researol Laboratory of E/earonics, Massachuseits lrrstilure of Technology, Cambridge, 02139 journal of [he Acoustic Society of America 59:176-182, January 1976 The formant structure of three dipthongs, four tense vowels, and tliree retroflex sounds was examined in detail for possible speaker-identifying features. Formant tracks were computed for each sound under investigation using covariance-type pitch-asynchronous linear prediction together with a root-finding algorithm. The interspeaker variability of about 200 measurements made on these formant tracks was compared initially with intrnspeaker variability through the palculation of F ratios. Those with average F ratios greater than 80 were evaluated further with a probability-of-error criterion. Features that are potentially most effective in identifying speakers are the minimum second-formant value in [ar], [ the maximum first-formant value in [ar], the maximum [ ] second-formant values of [o], and 11. and the minimum third-formant value of The individual differences apparent in these sounds presumably depend mort on speaker habits than on vocal-tract anatomy. The error bound predicted-for :i speaker identification procedure based on these five features in 0.24%. An identification experiment using only the best two features gave 12 errors out of SO identifications. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION Linear Estimation of Nonsta tionary Signals Lduis A. Liporace Insfitu~e for Defense Analysis, Comrnunico~ions Research Division, Princeion, New Jersey 08540 Journal o j the Acoustic Society of America 56:1296-, December 1975 lmplicit in the use of linear prediction is the assumption that within each analysis frame the signal is stationary. The acoustic signal is assumed to be suitably approxininted by a recursion which describes a linear time-invariant acoustic systeni cori~posed of a concatcnntion of equal-length. constan t-d ii~meter nondissipativr t 11 bes. Thn t is, nssoicnted with the coefficients (c ) in the recursion is a styliied articuli~tory configuration which remains fixcd throughout the analysis interval. If we allow the corfficientc to hc functions of ti~ne rather than constants we can obtain a more r~'3li~tic 1110drl in which [lie par;meters of the model chnrige contin~lously and autornntitally which articulation, yarhttr than discontinuously at fixed intervals. The time-varying area function can be estimated by adapting Wakita's procedure. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION A - Semiautomatic Pitch Detector (SAPD) Carol A. McConcgal, Lawrence R. Ri~biner, and Aaron E. Rosenbcrg Be// Laboratories, Murray Hill, New Jerse)~ 07974 lEEE Transactions on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing 23:570-574, Decenlber 1975 The determination of an ~i utterance's pitch contour utilizes simultaneous display (r,~ a 10 ms section-by-section basis) the low-pass filtered waveform, the autocorrelation of a 400point segment of the wideband recording. For each of the separate displays (i.e., waveform, autocorrelation, and cepstrum) an independent estimate of the pitch period is made on an interactive basis with the computer, and the final pitch period decision is made by the user based on results of each of the meacurements. Formal tests of the method were made in which four people were asked to use the method on lhree different iltterances, and their results were then compared. During voiced regions, the standard deviation in the value of the pitch period was about 0.5 samples across the four people. The standard deviation of the location of the time at which voiced regions became uilvoiced, and vice versa was on the order of a half a section duration, or 5 ms. The major limitation of the proposed method is that it requires about 30 min to analyze 1 s of speech. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION 41 A Pi tch-Synchronous Digital Feature Extraction System for Phonemic Recognition of Speech Wolfgang J. Hess lnstirur fuer In jormofionstecknik (Dotenverarbeitung), Technisch~ Unirvrsitaet Muenchen lEEE Transactions on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing 24:14-25, February 1976 The system has three portions: pitch extraction, segmentation, formant analysis. The pitch extractor uses an adaptive digital filter in time-domain transforming the speech signal into a signal similar to the glottal waveform. Using the levels of the speech signal and the differenced signal as parameters in tim,e domain, the subsequent segmentation algorithm derives a signal parameter which describes the speed of articulatory nlovenient. From this. the signal is divided into "stationary" and "transitional" segments; one stationary segment is associated to one phoneme. For the formant tracking procedure a subset of the pitch periods is selected by the seglnentation algorithm and is transfor~ned into freque~icy domain. The formant tracking algorith111 uses a niaximum detection strategy and continnity criteria for adjacent spectra. After this step the total parameter set is offered to an adaptive universal pattern classifier which is trained by selected nlaterial before working. For sationary phonemes. the recognition rate is about 85 percent when training material a d test material are uttered by the same speaker. The recognition rate is increased to about 90 percent when segmentation results are used. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION Analysis of Intonation Signals by Computer Simulation of Pitch-Perception Behavior in Human Listeners Yukio Takefuta Ohio State University SICLASH Newsletter 8, No. 'I:/ -8, February 1975 Pauses are used to delimit utterances into segments. Linear regression analysis of pitch patterns allows a 4-way classification of slopes of lines: fast rising, rising, level, falling. These are the 4 Fundamental Pattern Features (FPF). A combination of 2 or 3 (of the 4) FPF's per segment of utterance is a pitch pattern (80 possible). An intonation pattern is a com~ii~ation of pitch patterns. The position of the highest frequency vdue in the utterance is important. In comparing 2 utterances. if the high point occurs in different segments the intonations are contrastive even if the pitch patterns are the same. Of the 80 possible pitch patterns, some must be recognized as cardinal patterns and same as cognate patterns to the cardinal patterns. Different sets of rules must be used for the "high" segment and the final segment of the utterance. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION 42 Graph-Theoretic Cluster Analysis and Its Application to Speech Recognition School of Eleclrical Engineering, Purdlre Urliversify, Hft>sr Lqj'ayetle, lndiana S. Gould, Ed., Proceedirrgs of the First Il~terna~ianal Syn~posiurn on Corr~plrrers and Chinese /npu!/Output S-vsrerr~s, Acad ernia Sinicn, 225-242 A clustering algorithm is n~ainly a two stage process: 1) selection of 3 pairwise similarity measure between every two saniples or objects in the data set, 2) the similarity nieasure is used in a sorting procedt~re whereby groups of similar san~nles :Ire extracted. In 3 graphtheoretic clustering algorithni n graph is constriictcd fur [tic. given d;\t:~ arid subgraphs G satisfying certain properties are obtained. The clust2ring algorithm fct~ti~res a flexible method of edge construction (k-nearest neighbor thrttst~i~ld ii~cthod), uhich nllu\+s [tie grouping of samples to be riiorc effective, and the generalired Frisch's I;~helling algorith~i~, which detects and rrnloves the possible chaining effect in the d:lt;l. The al~orithtn is applied to the recogrii tion sf nasal consunan ts. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION A Comparison of Several Speech-Spectra Classification Nethods H. F. Silvcrnlan, and N. R, Dison Speech Processirlg Grorip, Cor?lplrrer Sciences Depdrtmt.nr, I B,l/ Tilorr~as J. Il'atson Research Cen~er, Yorktown Heiglrfs, New Pork IBM Research Report 5584, IS August 1975 Two measures of performance of speech spectra classif ication--accuracy and stabil i ty--were derived through the use of an automatic performance evaluation system. Over 3000 handlabelled spectra were used. The most si~ccessful classification i~iethod involved a linearlymean-corrected minimum distance measure, on a 30-point spectral representation with a square (or cube) norm. Straight minimum distance is the worst performer. The question of appropriate point representation is really one of adequate information retention. The SOpoint representation contains too many components above 3kHz while 20- and 10-point representations contain insufficient information relative to the classes to be discriminated. The value of the norm exponent primarily relates to the weight given extrerrla in the norm kernel; a heavier weighting (2 or 3) should be placed on extrerna. PHONETICS-PHONOLOGY: RECOGNITION: CHINESE Speech Recognition and Chinese Voice Input for Computer Kung-Pu Li TRW Systems Group, One Spoce Park, Redondo Beach, California S. Gould, Ed ., Proceedings of I he First International Symposium on Cotnput ers and Chinese Input/Output Syslems, Academia Sinica, 211-223 The machine recognition of Mandarin mono-syllables seems to be feasible at the present. An integrated recognition procedure of monosyllable utterances has also been suggested, and some results are described. The basic syllable structure contains three major parts: initial, tone, and final. The initial contains only consonantal phonemes of four different categories: sonorant, plosive, fricative, aspirate. There a re four tonemes in Mandarin Chinese; the pitch con tours cover only the final part of the syllable. In the vowel part of a syllable, although seven phonen~es are sufficient to describe all possible vowels, the final can also con tuin dipthorigs and tripthongs composed of more than one vowel phoneme. An itegrated recognition procedure of monosyllable utterances has been suggested, and some results are reported. PH0NETIC.S-PHONOLOGY: CHINESE Chinese Phonemes Analysis and Synthesis T. Y. Chou, and K. C. Huang Nafional Cjziao Tung Universily, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the Firs1 International Symposium on Computers and Chinese 1 npul/Ourpur Systems, Academia Sinica, 1227- 124 1 The system for producing consonants is a noise generator followed by a pole-zero resonator. while that for producing vowels is a quasi-periodic pulse generator with variable period followed by a resonator with three variable poles called formant frequencies, ranging f rorn 0 to 3 KHz. The results of analyzing, by means of sonagrams obtained from ten male voices, show that the 16 vowel phonemes can be classified into two classes as single and compounded vowel sounds. Some of the synthesized single vowels are very monotonic and can be recognized. Others, with third formant frequency slightly greater than 3 KHz are not as clear, due to the fast decaying of high frequency components in the generated pulses. The compounded vowels are also synthesized by a step variation of formant frequency derived from its components. The result is also well recognizable. The sonogram analysis of a continuous Chinese speech shows that every word and its spelling phonemes are quite independent and separable, and are therfore very different from English speech. I WRITING 44 Gra hemic Synthesis: The Ultimate Solution to the Chinese Input/Output Pro iem Carl Leban The University of Kansas, Lawrence S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the Firsr lrlternational Symposiuni on Compu~ers and Chinese Inpuf/Ulctpur Sysferns, Academia Sinica, 533-552 In design of 10 systems for human graphics it is necessary to simulate the activi!,, of writing and not the graphic result of that activity. Orthographic rules are essentially sets of criteria for determining proper seriul order of graphic signs, upon which further suhsets of phonetic, semantic, graphic and other conventions are imposed. Chinese orthogriiphy is of the polyalternnting polyvariable type in which a nunlber of undefined subsets of graphic signs conibine with each other in any of several possible juxtnpusitional nludcs according to rules not yet fully elucid:~tcd. But if tile logography is not converted to un in~rarinble series it cannot be input to, m;~nipul;~tcd in, or outpul from a digital compt~tt.r, The temporal series in which elements are coriiposed into logograph$ is variably serial, and therefore computer conipatible. Graphemic synthesis is a procedure by which logographs are niechanically produced in a manner simulating the nwnla1 writing procedure. Since logographs are synthesized from a sn~:lll finite set of coriiponent elements, there is no need to prestore logographs, but only the small grapheme set. Output in normal log~gr~iphg is achieved as needed only at the output end by reve.rs;ll of the synthesizing process. It is possible to achieve a synthesis at somewhat less than the ideal level, pseudographemic s-vnthesis, and this has been implemented in the SlNCO system. WRITING: RECOGNITION Feature Extraction on a Finite Set of Binary Patterns l'aul 1'. \Vans, and William S. Hodgkiss, Jr. Departrr~ent of Electrical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the Ficst infernational Synzposium on Cornputers and Chinese Input /Output Systems, Academia Sinicu, 183-194 A "best" subset of mutilally orthogonal features which are minin~um in number but sufficient to discriminate a finite set of patterns is chosen from a much larger set of available features in a systematic and deterministic manner by a heuristic program based on the criterion of maximum separability. The unique code words for the finite set of binary patterns are established through a learning procedure derived from a theorem on necessary and sufficient conditions for mutual independence of these vectors over a binary field. WRITING: RECOGNITION: CHINESE 45 An Experimental System for the Recognition of Handwritten Chinese Characters Shi-hluo Chang Instirure of Mothernatics, Academic Sinica, Nankang, Taipei, Republic of China Der Her Lo Depurtpenl of Cornpuler Science, National Chiao Tung Universily, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First Infernatiatal Symposium on Cornpulers and Chinese Inpul/Output Sysrents, Acadctllia Sinica, 257-267. A Chinese character can be thought of as cornposed fro111 a set of straight line segn~ents. A stroke is ideally a line segnlent or a cuncntenation oh sevcrnl straight line segments. Fach straight line segment has its starting point. direction and length. Therc is also a specified sequence among these segments. The specified sequence of line segments for a character is the same as the seq'uence of th'eir starting points. Therefore, when a character is drawn on the tablet of the hgitizer, the output paper tape containing the (x,y) coordinates of sa~nyling points of each of its line segments presents these points in the proper order. The preprocessor produces a sequence of siniglif'ied straight line segments, each with a direction code and length, from the paper tape input, and sends the results to the classifier which constructs 3 dictionary of characters which it then uses in the recognition process. The program achieved 95% recognition for a test sample of 300 Chinese characters. WRITING: RECOGNITION: CHINESE Computer-Aided Chinese Character Dynamic Programming Recognition by Forward Markovian Yung-Lung Ma Deparlment of Electrical Engineering, Narional Taiwan University, Taipei, Republic of China S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First lntern~ltional Symposium on Computers and Chinese lnpur /Ourput Systems, Academia Sinica, 269-286 A Chinese character may be called a kind of block picture. Each stroke seems to be a hieroglyph. Curves formed by several strokes or by a continous stroke do not happen very often. Sorne characters only differ by a single stroke. If the Markovian processes mentioned in this paper are used, detailed recognition for each row and colunin is available and even a single stroke would not be missed absolutely, so the increasing the degree of correct recognition is by no means a proi~lem. A plane block picture may be divided i'nto plane blocks while a solid one can be discussed by dividing it into solid blocks. The greater the number of layers, the higher the degree of correct recognition. The input. pattern is divided into 20 layers for individual recognition. If every layer satisfied the condition, then recognition is complete. If one of the layers has a great difference, then the pattern should be another picture. WRITING: RECOGNITION: CHINESE 46 The Topological Anal sis, Classification, and Encoding of Chinese Characters for Digital Computer 7 nterfacing- -Part I Paul I? Wang Depart~nent of Electrical Engineering, Duke Universir): Durl~um, Nortlt Carolinu S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Computers and Chinese lnput/Ouiput Syslems, Academia Sinico, 4 17-439 A set of features believed to be useful in classification and recognition and which is deduced from topologiciil properties and heuristic properties is pro,posed. AII encoding schenie offers a unique code word for each character (signature) of a dictionary of about 6.000 items. A three-st~ge n~nchine recognition system, based upon the optimal ~~~i~ltiple cat gory classif ic:ilion principle, has bee11 proposed to solve r he problem of ui~to~naiic reading of Chinese characters. A by product of this research 1s the dcveloplnent of s topolugic:llly based Icxicographic;~l ordering for a useful Chinese dictionary. Finally, some reco~nmendations concernilig machine recognition of printed Chinese ideographs are made. WRITING: SYNTHESIS: CHINESE Software Method in Kanji Information Processing 'l'eiji Knkinun~a Fujitsu Limi f ed, Minato-k u, Tokyo, Japan Kenn~i Tsukatani PETY Limited, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Compurers and Chinese Inpuf/Output Systems, Acadernig Sinico, 983-998 in the FCL (FACOM Composition Language) System, information is punched on paper tape with a Kanji keyboard. The layout data turns out the forms of finnl printed matter as parameters. punched with an alphanumeric keyboard. and these are applied to the FCL as an input together with the text data. The results of the editing by the FCL are output to a cassette magnetic tape, transferred to the photo type-autosetter, and are printed on film. At this stage a print for correction is completed and this print is placed in the c0rrectio.n processing cycle. The correction processing generates the corrected data concr rn ing errors in the test and layout data and this corrected data is again input to the FCL. The FCL saved file is utilized as the objective of the correction processing. The FRAME program is the portion of the layout control system which defines paragraph groups which have the same character and shape. WRITING: SYNTHESIS: CHINESE Photo-Electrostatic Kanji Printer Atsushi Ishi, Yoichi Hagiwara, Woshimitsu'Masui, and Yoshiyuki Aida Fujitsu Ltd., Minato-Ru, Tokyo, Japail S. Could, Ed., Proceedings of the First international Symposium on Computers and Chinese Input/Oufput Systems, Academia Sinica, 969-981 This Kanji printer consists of a character generator and a printer. The character generator has a small rotating iniage disc with 5,376 characters printed on it, and the character patterns are converted into video signals by a vidicon. The printer has an optical fiber tube and a photo-electrostatic recording element. Reproduced character patterns on the surface of the optical fiber tube are recorded on the dielectric coated paper by a photo-electrostatic element. This Kanji printer is capable of printing 100 characters a second, aid is usable for any application of printing in Kanji. WRITING: SYNTHESIS: CHINESE Designing Storage/Outpu t Units. for Chinese Input/Output Digital Computers Kai tIuang Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida S.Gould., Ed., Proceedings of the First lnternationa! Symposium on Computers and Chinese l npuf/Output Sys f ems, Academia Sinica, 931- 942 The storage unit (SU) provides a permanent filing cabinet for storing Chinese characters in any predetermined binary-coded form. The stored information is addressable and readable froin external control. The SU contains a large-scale cellular array of Read-only Memories (ROM) with the associated address decoder, control logic, memory addreddata registers and sense amplifier to enable readability The output unit is used for printing or displaying decoded Chinese in ideographic form. It consists of a k2-segment character decoder, two buffer registers, and auxiliary display terminals (DT). The DT may take many forms, such as a multiple-head printer, D/A converter and storage CRT monitor or a graphical display console make with an array of light emitting devices (LED). WRITING: SYNTHESIS: CHtNESE 48 Computer-Aided Design of Chinese Character Patterns Hideo Hirahara, Iiiyoshi Kibuchi, alrd Masan~itsu Satou Infor~nations Sysfems Rejearch Laboratory, Toshiba Research and Development Center, Kawasaki-City, Japan S. Could, Ed., Proceedings of flip First Intcrnutional Syniposium on Computers and Chir~ese inpul/O~tput S.ystems, ACP mia Sinica, 909-930 The System generates dot patterns from any original design pittern or handwritten items. The source patterns are scanned with a vidicon camera and recoxied on magnetic tape. The following procedures are used: 1) Noise elin~ination and smoothing of scnnned patterns, 2) Line enhancement, 3) Matrix size conlpression, 4) Inreractive refinerner~t, 5) Auton~atrc b veneration of Chinese characttr read only nlcmory (ROM) patterns. l'he obtair~ed dot patterris are then translated into a paper tape for numerical coiltroller which in turn drives the wiring systrnl for tllr read only memory. Chir~esr char;lctrr line printers. CRT displays, and other Chinese character output devices can be implemented by this Chinese character rend only memory. WRITING: TEXT INPUT: CHINESE ArSystem Design for the Input of Chinese Characters through 'the Use of ~hbnetic and Orthographic Symbols. ti. C. Li, S. 1'. Hu, C. L. Jcn, H. Chou, S. Shnn, and E, T. Chen Departmen1 of Economics, Bryant College, Switll field, R, I , S. Gould, Ed., E'toceedings of lhe Firsr international Symiposiunt on Computers alrd Chinese I npul/Output Systems, Acad enlia Sinica, 501-5 11 The following principles have been observed in svstem design: 1) Easy to Learn and Use, 2) inexpensive to Implement. 3) Higher lnput Rate. 4) Unique Code for Dictionary Search, 5) Facilitate Other Related P,pplications. The input of Chinese characters is through ti]: use of ?honetic and orthographical symbols. The total number of symbols needed to transcribe a single Chinese character varies from a lower limit of three to a maximum of eight. A single Chinese character requires a maximum. of three phonetic symbols and one intonation notation to indicate pronunciation. By coupling one to four of fifteen orthographical symbols with the pronunication symbols, each Chinese character can be uniquely transcribed into a set of symbols which indicates the pronunciation as well as the orthographical structure of the ideosraphy. No new hardware is required for implen~entation. With some minor modifications, the keypunch machines and other typewriter-like input peripherals now available on the market can be used immediately. WRITING: TEXT INPUT: CHINESE 49 A New Approach to a Chinese (Tele) Typewriter, Which Can be Used as a Telex, Data Terminal and Computer lnput/Output Device Ye-San Liu Direc~orale General of Telecomntunica/ions, Taipei, Republic of Chiria S. Could, Ed., Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Computers and Chinese lnpui/Outpui Systems, Academia Sinica, 489-499 A typing Keyboard is proposed which is arranged like an English teletypewriter, using an 8unit code as in an ASCII code with even parity Switching a lever key, you will be able to type Chinese or English. Whe~ you type Chinese, you need only to push a key three tirnes at most to con~plete the selection of a character. Then the character will come out by pushing the space bar once. If it is so arranged as to push a key three times for all characters, we shall be able to save the process of pushing the space bar for every character. The rules of decomposing Chinese characters are studied. The key layout of the keyboard is so arranged as to make recog~ition of key position easy. Four simple typing rules have been determined. There are only 21, out of the 3,000 characters which often appear in current newspapers, that share the same 3 keyed codes, and so they have been treated as exceptions. WRITING: TEXT INPUT: CHINESE PEACE--A Phonetic Encoding and Chinese Editing System Shi-Kuo Chang, Chi-Shion Chiu, Ming-Hwei Yang, and Bao-Shuh Lin Cotnpuration Laboratory, Institute of Mathentatics, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Republic of China S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Compurers and Chinese lnput/Ourpur Sysfems, Academia Sinica, 29-47 Different Chinese characjers may have the same phonetic transcription (using Chinese National Phonetic Symbols), requiring methods to disambiguate homonyms. If however, the Chinese text is coded into phrases separated by delimiters. then the phrases can often be decoded unambiguously to obtain tht corresponding string of Chinese characters. The file structure for the PEACE system consists of a character file and a phrase file. Chinese characters are stored in the form of a composition rule. The phonetic encoding method has also proved to be quite satisfactory, especially for the generation and editing of Chinese texts, where more than 60% of the characters are embeded in phrases. Character encoding rates of the order of 30 characters per minute can be attained with this system. WRITING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE A New Alphameric Code for Chinese Ideographs Nelson Ling-Sun Chou East Asia Library, Rutgers University S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings uf the First International Syrtiposiu~n 011 Cor~rptlt ers and CJlirle~e Input /Output Systems, Academia Sinica, 47 1-188 The Following are assumed: 1) A11 Chinese ideographs are composed of one or more components, and thus may be classified by the pattern of these conqxments. 2) Each of the cormnents is in turn conqposed of one or more graphic elements. The total number of gralpvic elen~cnts is fairly limited. 1deogr;iphs may be divided into four mujur pntterrls: Hontontal. Vertical. Bordered, ncld Independent. After ide~~lific:~tion of 80 ideogr:~ph's pattern, a component's structure, and the husic elements, one c:ln then perforni the codirig by followilig rules for: 1) Ideograph as a wliole. 2) Coniponents. 3) Ele~l~e~its, 4) Rrl;it~u~rship or separation signs, 5) Coding sequence, 6) Conipone~~t of bordered pattern, 7) lndept*ndent ideographs of components. WRITING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE Chinese Input-Output with Standard IBM Selectric Typewriter Terminal Ching C. Tsao Enlerson W. Pugh IBhl T.J. Watson Research Center, Yorkfo~vn Heights, New Yor, S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of: rhe Firs1 lnrernational Syntposium on Cornpzrrers and Chinese 1 nput /Output ~y;(ents, Acaaemia Sinica, 459-469 A multicorner indexing system has been developed for entering Chinese characters, using the numeric keys of a standard comptlter terminal. Each character is uniquely coded with a sequence of one to nine digits in a nine-corner extension of Wang's Four Corner System. A 20- by 21- dot array output code has been programmed in APL for use on the 18M 2741 Standard Selectric* Terminal with the fine-plot printing element. These two techniques can be combined to provide an easily learned Chinese input-output system for use on standard corn puter hardware. WRITING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE 51 The Creation of a Set of Alphabets for the Chinese Written Language Kendall L. Su School Elecrrical Engineering, Georgia institute of Technology, Atlanta S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First Inrernational Symposium on Computers and Chinese 1 nput /Ourpu! Syslems, Academia Sinico, 44 1-458 A set of symbols has been derived by dividing up each in a set of 4,600 Chinese characters. This set of symbols can represent practically all Chinese characters. These syrnbols can be used as the alphabets of the language, except that they offer no phonetic information on each character. The spelled.-out Chinese is readable without ambiguity and referential :.id. The immediate and long-term applicatioss of these alphabets are discussed. Extensive examples are given. WRITING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE On the Formal Description gf Chinese Chul Marion Re Finlcy, Jr, Universite Laval, Quebec, Canada S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Compur~rs and Chinese Input /Ourput Systems, Academia Sinica, 51 3-531. Chinese characters maybe defined as objects produced by a generative grammar suitably extended to two din~ensions. At the heart of this extension is the coordinate-free configuration operator which. together with its inflections, permits the desired stroke linking to compose a given character. The character so generated corresponds then ts a derivationtree which reveals structural properties common with other characters. This tree in turn leads to a quasi-algebraic expression for the character which can be coded to give character indexing for storage and retrieval purposes. The recognition problem is considered briefly. Some experimental results with a character design language are presented. WRITING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE 52 The Chiao-Tun Radical System, Part I: The Analysis and Design of the Chiao-Tung Ra cP ical System Ching-chun Hsieh, Yung-wen Hwang, Shu Lin, and Kwei-n~in Hsu Cornpurer Science Depurt~r~ent, National Chiao-Turig Uni~ersil!~, H sinchu, Taiwun, Republic of China S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of !he First lnternational Syntposiurn on Computer! P Cllirrese lnput/Ourpur Systetlts, Acadenlio Sinica, 49-62 Chinese characters are characterized by strokes which are well distributed in n block space of a definite size. The use of radicals plus weight design allows composition of characters from radicals to yield pleilsing results. Radicals with fewer strokes are given srn;illcr weights: those with conlplicatcd strokes are given greater weights, so t hiit the character obtr1ir1s.d f run the composition is eveilly distributed in the block. The characters thus coniposrd directly look very 111uch like those integral characters \Shicl~ are obt~~iried froni dot rll:ltricc's without decon~position. Using only 496 radicals, 18.713 Chiriese characters can be gentrated. The radical system proposed is a precedence grammar WRIT-ING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE The Chiao-Tung Radical System, Part II: Character Composition and Methods to Represent Radicals Ming-Wen Du, Ching-Chux liseih, Shu-Hong Clii, and Shu-Cling Chu Computer Science Departmen[, Nationul Chiao-Turig Llrriversity, Hsinchu, Taiwan China S. Gould, Ed,, Proceedings of the First Internotiorral Symposium on Computers Input /Output Systems, Academia Sinica, 63-78 There are two steps in composing a Chinese character from its radical formula. the position of each radical and the area occupied by each in the character. each radical and place the radicals illto their right positions. There are seven representing the radical system in a computer: 1) dot matrix method, 2) absolute method (the method adopted in implementing the system). 3) relative line seement core method, 5) chain code method (basically a line segment method), 6) analytical method, 7) mixed mode, which requires the smallest memory space (7.992 K Bytes) to store all 496 radicals. Republic of and Chinese WRITING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE 53 The Upper-Right Corner Indexing System for Chinese Language and a New Chinese Character Encoding System T. Y. Kiang Departmen! of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Republic o/ Chino S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Computers and Chinese lnput /Output Sysrems, Academia Sinica, 79-93 Alr Chinese characters may be classified into three classes: 1) Characters with no common radicals, 2) Characters composed of a conimon radical and a niain part, 3) Character$ including more than one common radical. 100 common radicals were selected for use iq the system and nearly 70% of the chnracters belong to class 2. Since most of thel common radicals are on the left sides of characters, we suggest indexing a cllarncter according to its upper or right stroke form. In the resulting system it is necessary to learn only 47 indices, The characters as well as the nuin parts are equally distributed under the indices. The system is easy to learn, fast in operation, has a large vocabulary, low in cost and is readily implen~entable on a mini-computer, WRITING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE Character Identification Using the Phonetic Code and the Four-Corner Code (in Chinese) T. he, an C. Ysng Narional .ft sing-Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the Firgl Interna!ional Symposium on Computers ohd Chinese I npuf/Output Systems, Academia Sinica, 95-101 WRITING: CHARACTER SETS: CHINESE 54 Use of Contextual Information in the Design of a Chinese Character Pattern File l-Lieh Huang IBM Warson Research Cenrtr, Yorktown Heights, New York S.Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First lrlternational Symposium on Computers and Chinese input /Output Sysrcrrts, Academia Sinica, 1007-101 2 We assume that Chinese characters are digitized into n by n matrices of 0's and 1's and represented in packed from ih computer storage, usually in a magnetic disk. Assume that an unblocked indexed sequential method is used for nrgani~ing the c.p. (character pattern) file. Each rgcord contairis a 2-bvte key and 34n bytes of data where n is the nunlbsr of Chinese character patterns cotitainei in the record. We :lssurne here that we use 2 bytes fur character ID and 32 bytes of character patterns, If we illcrease the number of character patterns ir] each record from one to four, we reduce the nuniber of records per track (disc 111eriiory) by a factor less than 2 A study of contexts of occurrence will tell us what c,p.'s should be stored together. Thus a record shoi~ld contain not only the c.p. of a given character, but the c.p.'s of some characters that would follow the given character with high probability. WRITING: CHINESE An Melligent Terminal for Chinese Character Processing F. F. Fang, C. N. Liu, and D. T. Tang IBM Thomas J . CVatson Research Center, Yorktowrt Heights, New York S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First International Symposiunr on Conlputers and Chinese Input /Output Systems, Acadernia Sinica, 103- 114 The proposed terminal system consists of three modules: Input Output. Control. The input module includes: 1) a character board consisting of a position sensing input device or an array of keys which may be used to input a selected character by transforming its x, y positions to any desired character code. 2) a general purpose keyboard which may contain 50 tn 300 keys each of which is associated with a discriminating mask, and 3) a set of discriminating masks which, when used singly or as a group, perform the character set selection lo_eic. The autput module consists of: I) a character description file which is organized according to the character code and colitains information for pneration of characters for pri~ting or display, and 2) a printer or display for physical output of characters. The control for the input and/or output system is obtained ttjrough either software or firmware. Various degrees of intellieence may be programmed to achieve additional character selection and character generation features. WRITING: CHINESE 55 Techniques for the Implementation of a Chinese Input/Output System G, W. Crawford, and S. H. Chung Weslinghouse Electric Corporarion, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania S. Gould Ed., Proceedings of the First international Symposium on Computers and Chinese Input /Oufpul Sysrems, Academia Sinica, 96 1-968 The input problem is solved using an extension of Wang's Four-Corner Dictiorary Method that uniquely describes a Chinese word by a six digit number. The technique is then simplified by utilizing a five digit number pnd an interactive CRT terniinal that allows complete resolution of ambiguities. Various methods of output are briefly considered and it is concluded and a Computer Output Microfil~n (COM) unit is the nlost. logical device presently available. A specific example of an implementation of n Chinese input/output system based on a. CDC 7600 computer driving a Stromberg-Dotagraphix COM unit is described and a specific example of the output included. WRITING: CHINESE The Modern Chinese Computer System Y -Tze Kuo B.P. 5080,' Kinshasa, Zaire, Africa S. Gould, Ed., Proceedinss of ihe Firs! lnternaiionol Symposium on Compurers and Chinese Input /Output Systems, Acoderniu Sinica, 957- 959 Input is handled by the author's mixed typing system Modern Chinese typewriter w'hich has a total of 2400 normal and half-size Chinese words which permit the form~ion of the necessary 8000 common Chinese words. With this snialler nun~bet of Chinese words it is possible to represent then1 by :different pudched holes on the same kind of punch card as in the occidental computers. Any occidental computer and any new Chinese computqr could be used with the system for Chinese language as well as for English and other languages. Output is ihrough the author's Modern Chinese typewriter equipped with automatic vping and positioning devices. WRITING: CHINESE 56 The Chiao-Tung Radical System, Part Ill: Keyboard Design and an Implementation of the Chiao -Tung Radical Yung-Wen Huang, Ching-Chun Hsich, Sic-Lin Liu, and Tai-Chrrng Chen Computer Science Depurr~nent, Nutionol Chiao-Tung Linirrrsitjl, Hsinchu, Tuiwon S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of thc Firsr lr~tern~ltionol S!vrosilrrrr or1 Cor?~putt~s and Chinrse Inpur/Outpur Syslenrs, Academia Sinica, 943-956 The system consists of: 1) HP 2100A n~ini-coniputer. 2) keyhoard of 640 keys. 3) or keyboard of 88 keys, 4) tape reader; 5 ) electrost:\tic printer, h) display scope. Chiriesc chilrnclers may be fed into the computer eilticr throt~~h ke),htxlrdz; or L tirough paper tape Outpul is prinrtd by the printer and alstl displ;\yt.d on thc s~.~)pe. The input radicals are coqlbincd into cliaructcrs by the cori~positic~ii nlcttlocl in the coniputcr. After three huurs of fi~nlili;~riz;~tion, m operator nlay reach n spt.t.il rlf 10 chi~r;~c.tcrs pcr r~iiriutc, It is cstiriiated that 3 speed of' 30 cprn 111;1!~ bc rt\;lc.tit.d in ;r nlonrh. 7 il bc conip:~tit~lc M I I th other input rrlrthods (phurirtic alphabets, four-corner code, standard telephone code, etc.) only s table is needed. Sirlce it takes niertsly 1 nis to cor~~pcrss ;I character, tirlie sharing may be utilized, LEXICOGRAPHY -LEXICOLOGY: STATISTICS Computer Generated Word Classes and Sentence Structures A, ?'rcti;~koff Conl~rrissnriaf u I'Encrgie Atotrlique, BP 6, 92, Fontt.truy aux Roses, Fronce Inj'orn~r~ricln Processittg 74, Nortlr-Holland Puhlishirrg CU., 919-93, 1974 First a dictionary of the corpus (here is an t.str;~ct from S. h4;lugharn's Tlie Painied I'cil) is produced. Classification of words is based on the maxirnt~~n infurn~ntion principle which considers that for a given number of groups, the greater the qmntity of information. the better the distribution of the words into these groups. The words are distributed into two C groups in such 3 way that the quantity of information associated with this classificati.on is maximized. Dichotomization is carried on until the statistical uncertainty on the amount of information is greater than the zain of information obtained by a new dichotomy. For each sentence of the corpus, the code produces a structure bxed on the degree of correlation of two consectltive words. Inside the sentence consecutive words are connected two by two in order of decreasing degree of correlation, LEXICOGRAPHY -LEXICOLOGY: STATISTICS Text Connexitivity and Word- Frequency Distribution Hans Karlgren KVA L, Stock holm Hakan R.ingbotn, Ed., Style and Texb, Sprakforlaget Skrjptor, Sfookholm, 335-348, 1975 ISBN 91-7282-095-0 The distribution of a word in a text can be described in two ways. by the mariner in which it differs from that in some other texts and by the manner in which it varies from one part of the text to another, Thematic words are those which stand out in comparison with a given background. The use of the proper statistical techniques (a measure due to HasslerGoransson which is defined as the chi-square value divided by the number of degrees of freedom is suggested) makes it possible to study the way in which words enter and leave the scene in a pattern which characterizes the text in mircl~ the satlie way as the intrclt s and exit s determine a play, Using more sopliisticated methods it is possible to study the strength of connection between any two parts of the text and a segmentation of the text into internally mote strongly connected and mutually more loosely connected portions can be tested or even tnechanically suggested. LEXICOGRAPHY -LEXlCOLOGY: TEXT HANDLING Machine Readable Texts in Latin (with Special Reference to the Didactic Implications of a Computer Aided- Method) E. M. Goldstein University of Of fawa, mm hnadg SIGUSH Newslertcr No. 04: 1-3, October 1975 Four items of information are recorded for each entry. (1) the form the word as it is in the text, (2) the lemm~. the form of the word in a dictionary. (3) a detailed reference to the form. (4) its coded analysis. from morphological and syntactic viewpoints. It was found that for Caesar's Commenrarii de bell0 gallico the 704 words which occurred more than 10 times covered 86.03% of the text Studies of this sort are important in determining what vocabulary shoyld be taught <o students; there is no immediate need to teach words of low occurrence. LEXICOGRAPHY -LEXICOLOGY: DIALECTOLOGY An Organization for a Dictionary of Senses Dick H. Fredericksen IBM Thorllas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, New York IBM Research Reporr 5548, 4 June 1975 "Senses" are represented separately from "wordings" and the mutual connections between them are made explicit in both directions, "Wordings" may be either single words or multi-word phrases which are on the same footing with regard to "sense" connections. Each word is associated with an exhai~stive list of the phr:\ses in which it occurs. Classifiers and features, drawn froni appropriate sets, may be attributed separately to words, to phrases, to senses, or to particular senses of words or phrases (i.e. to particular wordings of senses). The data items which represerlt scnses are globally chained, and may be exhaustively listed. The dnt;\ itenis which represent words ore accessible as "le;lves" of a lexical tree and may be retrieved either by lookup or volr~n teered in alphabetical order. The "senses" represented in this dictionary are not a set of primitives into which I~urn;~n experience can be decomposed; meaning is still a step removed, still evoked rather than embodied by the elements of this basis. In a fullfled~ed system fur natural language processing the "dictionary of senses" could be envisioned as a component stretching vertically across the "upper" layers. The "sense drlta items" must link to th'e deeper-lying data structures which encode "knowledge of the world." LEXICOGRAPHY -LEXICOLOGY: THESAURI The Structuring of an Associative Empirical Thesaurus of English Christine M. Armstrong, and J. R. Piper Medical Research Council, Speech and Cornmunicarion Unit, University of Edirlburgh SIGLASH Newsletter 8, No. 2-3:l-6,. April-June 1975 A collection of English language data based on free associcition is organized as a network: node = word, arc = associative frequency. We obtained 100 responses for each of 8,400 words; the net has 56,000 nodes. For each of 35,000 words we can obtain an environment of related words and this environment is fairly large and relevant in content for 8400 stimi~lus words. The environment can be clustered into subsets, which turn out to be a semantic sorting of the environment. The search can be forward (stimulus to associate), inverse, or in both directions. Since growing environments can produce ponderously large subsets of network, environments are lin~ited by techniques involving transmittance to each node, the number of paths traversed which lead to each node, path length, and a frequency cut-off. It seems better to consider forward and inverse environments separately. GRAMMAR 59 Optimal Encoding of Linguistic lnforma tion liazu hi ko Ozeki N H K (Japan Broadcosting Corporation) Technical Research Laboratories, Tokyo, Jopan 157 Sysfenis - Computers - Confrols 5, No. 3:96-103, 1974 Stochastic context-free langyiges as models of NL. A senttnce is parsed first and transformed into a sentence dtrivstion, and then this derivation, expressed as a string of results of "productions," is coded by coding each production. For this coding procedure, it is shown that* if the productions are divided into groups of the same left-hand side and if each production group is 'Huffman-coded, then the mean code length is less than the sum of the entrop,y and the mean number of steps of sentence derivations. Futliermore. under certain conditions this code becomes optinial in the sense that the mean code length and the entropy coincide, that is, there is no uniquely decodable code with shorter mean code length. GRAMMAR Stochastic Context-Free Grammar and Markov Chain Kazuhiko Ozeki NHA: Techrlical Research Laboratories, Tokyo, Japan 157 Systems - Compuiers - Controls 5, 3:104-110, 1974 A stochastic context-free grammar (scfg) is an automaton which stops when a sentence is generated. However, in investigating the information theoretic properties of a long text is convenient to use a scfg-based system which returns to the start symbol and begins the C eeneration of another sentence as soon as it completes the generation on one sentence. The system becomes a Markov chain having the set of all derivations as the state space, which is called hece the Markov chain associated with an scfg It turns out that: 1) The Markov chain assoicated with an scfg is irreducible. 2) For the chain to be recurrent it is necessary and sufficient that the language generated by the scfg be a probability space. 3) For the chain to be positive recurrent, it is necessary and sufficient that the mean number of steps of the sentence derivations be finite. 4) It is well known that when a Markov chain is positive recurrent it has an invariant distribution and its entropy per step HI is defined. If an scfg satisfies certain conditions, we have HI = H(E)/(M(E) + 1). GRAMMAR: GENERATOR 60 On the Generation of English Sentence Franz Huber Cardiovascular Pulmonary Research Laboratory, Universily of Colorado Medical Center, Denver 80220 lEEE Transactions of Coniputers 25:90-91, January 1976 Beckniann's error-detecting simple efficient procedure gramni;~ticnl structure atid compiler, messages in interactive systems, etc. prarnmar dcscri bed irnplerntln ted with a state table with S states: Article. Numeral, Adjective. Noun, Conjunc(ion, Preposition, Verb, Auxiliary Verb. The syntactic type of the varius words is specified by the location of the entry in the dictionary. Sentences are formed by supplying the routine with a sequence of poillters to dictionary entries; the routine itself checks wlirther this is a possible sentence, calculates the correct check morphemes, and puts a period at the end.

code model for the structure of natural languages is used in a for generating a large number of English sentences with simple a high rate of word repetition--such as dingrioslic messages of a

The is SEMANTICS-DISCOURSE Montague Grammar and Transformational Grammar Barbara Partee Departmen1 of Linguistics, University of Massaclrusetts, Amhers1 Linguistic Inquiry 6: 203-300, Spring 1975 A truth-definition (in the manner of Tarski) or something to the sanie effect must be a par1 of any adequate semantic theory. The syntax of a Montague grammar is a simultaneous recursive definition of all of the syntactic categories of the language, For every syntactic category there must be a unique corresponding semantic category and for every syntactic rule that combines (operates on) phrases of categories A and B to produce a category C, there nilst be a unique senian tic rule that operates on the corresponding semantic interpretation to give a semantic interpretation for the resulting phrase; that interpretation will be of the semantic category corresponding to the syntactic category C. Techniques involving labelled bracketing and "starred variables" enable the additions of transformations to Montague grammars. SEMANTICS-DISCOURSE Contemporary Research in Philosophical Logic and Linguistic Semantics D. J. Hockney, E. William Harper, and B. Freed, eds. Uoiversity of Western Ontario D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland, 1975 HC: ISBN 90-277-0511-9 PC: ISBN 90-2774512-7 Con tents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Counterfactuals and Comparative Possibility, by David Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Presuppositions, by Robert Stnlnaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Incomplete Assertion and Belnap Connectives, by Bas C. van Fraasen . . . . . . . . 43 Dimensions of Truth, by Hans G. Herzberger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Speaking of Nothing, by Keith S. Donnellan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 The Structure of Efficacy, by Zeno Vendler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Harris and Chomsky at the Syntax-Semantics Boundary, by Ray C. Dougherty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some Transformational Extensions of Montague Grammar, by Barbara Partee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hedges: A Study in the Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts, by George Lakoff . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Coments: Lakoff's Fuzzy Propositional Logic, by Bas C. van Fraasen . . . . . . . . 273 Ch the Setnantics of Negation, by Howard Lasnik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Verbs of Bitching, by James McCawley . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 195 SEMANTICS-DISCOURSE 62 Understanding Language: An Information-Processing Analysis of Speech Perception, Reading, and Psycholinguis tics Donlinic W. Massaro, Ed. Deparrmenr o: Psychology, Universiy of N'iscor~sin, Madison Academic Press, Ne)v York, 1975. lSBN 0-12-478350-8 HC: $16.50 Con tents List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . , . . . , , . . . . xi Part I lntroduction 1 Language and lnfornlation Processing, Dominic W Mqssaro 1. introduction . , . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 11. Information Processing . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . Ill. Auditory Information Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IY. Visual Information Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . , . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 27

Part I1 Speech Perception Articulatory and Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds, Lucinda Wilder 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 11. Production of Speech Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 111. General Acoustic Properties of Speech Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 1V. Articulation of Speech Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 V. Occurrence of Speech Sounds 46 VI. Vowel Phonemes of English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 VII. Coarticulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 VIII. Consonant Phonemes of English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SEMANTICS-DISCOURSE Part III Reading 6 Visual Features. Preperceptual Storage. and Processing Time in Reading. Dominic

W . Massaro and Joseph Schmuller I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 11 . Visual Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 I1 I . Perceptual Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 IV . Processing Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 7 Prirnary and Secondary Recogr~itiun in Reading. Dominic W . Massaro I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 11 . Utilizatior~ of Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 . Phonological Mediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV . Nonmediated Models of Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V . Mediated Models of Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reading Eye Movements from an Information-Processing Point of View. Wayne Shebilske 1 . Introduction: Significance of Reading Eye Movements . . . . . . . . . . . X I . Characteristics of Reading Eye Moveinents; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ill. Oculomotor Control During Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. Summary and Concl.usion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9 Linguistic Theory and Information Processing. Kenneth B . Sol berg

I . introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 . Linguistics and Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111 . Theories of Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1V . Semantics and Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part IV Psycholinguistics 260 273 278 286 291 292 301 308 309 315 316 318 331 SEMANTICS-DISCOURSE V . Models of the Language. User . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Word and Phrase Recognition in Speech Processing . Arthur Freund 1 . lnfsoduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1 . Word Recognition and Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 . Acoustic Cues of Grammatical Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV . Click Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 An Analysis of Some Psychological Studies of Grammar: The Role of Generated

Abstract Memory. Joseph 0 . ~ellige

1 . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 . The Nature of Short-Term Memory (STM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I11 . The Psychological Reality of Constituent Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1V . The Psychological FZlriction of Certain Transformation Rules . . . . . . . .

V . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Author 'Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subject lndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SEMANTICS-DISCOURSE Seven Theses on Artificial Intelligence and Natural Language Yorick Wilks Deparlmen~ of Artificial Intelligence, Univei sily of Edinburgh Institldte /or Semantic and Cognitive Studies, Fandazione Dalle h falle, Nforking Paper 17, Words and semantic primitives are not utimalely of different types, although procedural benefits come fro111 making the distinction. Plans stated in high level progranlrrling languages are most appropriately scen as texts, since they do riot seen] to he either real world procedures or procedures for handliog natural language, As a pe~leral n~erhod of pursing nafural language. expectation is radically defective ilnless it has some general slid svste~i~atic apacity for attending to what it is rending. The important dist~nction betwen catlses and reasons in the esplnnation of hum;tn behnvior should have procedur;ll and not only t:lsono~i~ic rcflction in an underst;lnding system. Tenipl:\te to tenlplnte (in preferential setnan tics) inference rules are: GOAL, CAUSE. IM1'IL.IC. The CAUSE/GOAL distinction often rstuces to no niore than the temporal directionnlity of the rule. Real world knowledge can be represented quite usefully at quite local levels in an llnderstanding and can function there as part of a general systeni of lit~guistic inference. The use of frames threattns to swamp us in large frame structures for relatively trivial nlatters ;~nd it is not cleilr how frames are rrlr1tt.d Io lower level structures. We need multiie~el represen!:tion. It is not at all obvious that a NL understanding system should be resporlsible or modeling general knowledge of the world. On Natural Language Based Query Systems Stanley R. I'etrick IBhf J. Watson Research Cetrter, hiat/~ernatical Scimces Department, Yorktown Heigkrs, New York IBM Research Report 5577, 17 August 1975 Some of the arguments which have been given both for and against the use of natural languages in qnestioning-answering (QA) systems are discussed. The following systems are considered in evaluatingr the current level of QA system development: LSNLIS, REL, SHRDLU. REQUEST There is a trade-off between syntactic and semantic complexity. A yystem with relatively simple syntactic capabilities must have complex semantic analysis procedures while a system, such as REQUEST, with sophisticated syntax can produce i~nderlying syntactic structures which directly reflect meaning without the need for "creative" interpretation. A brief comparison between processing times in LSN LlS and REQUEST is given. SEMANTICS-DISCOURSE: MEMORY: QUESTION ANSWERING Question Answering in a Story Understanding System Wendy Lehnert Deparrmenl of Computer Science, Yale University Research Report 57, December 1975 This theory of question answering is based on the SAM (Script Applier Mechanism) mechanism. In the interpretative phase it takes a question in Conceptual Dependency form and categorizes it in terms of particular question types: 1) why. 2) how, 3) yes or no, 4) occurrence, 5) component. Each question type corresponds to a specific form of CD representation. In the response phase the memory is searched for the answer; this may involve nothing more than simple inforni:itioi~ retrieval or it may entail inferring the answer using gener;ll knowledge of the world. The systenl tries for co~npleteness in answering; a yes/no q\~estion will be answered with yes or no plus an account of that answer. Work is being done on a Generation-Selection paradigm in which each question generates a number of feasible answers (the problem of memory representation) and a selection procedure chooses among them (pure QA). Selection rules are presented and discussed. SEMANTICS-DISCOURSE: TEXT GRAMMAR Beyond the Sentence, Between Linguistics and Logic Janos S. Petofi Universitaet Bielefeld Hakan Ringbop, Ed ., Style and Text, Sprak forlaget Skriptor AB, Stockholm, 377-390, 1975 ISBN 91-7282-095-0 The 'text-structure-world-structure theory' (TeSWeST) is an empirically motivated logicoriented theory aiming at the gramn~atical description of a text as a con~plex sign (intensional semantic description) and the assignment of the possible extensional interpretations to the intensional-semantically described text structure (extensional-semantic theory). The intensional-semantic and extensional-semantic descriptions are si~ch that they also contain the description of the pragmatic' aspects. The grammatical component of the TeSWeST is a generative transformational text grammar operating with linearly not fixed canonic basic

The formation rule system of this grammar consists of a o-called comn~unicative structur? rule (R ) expressed informally as: A communicative basis (TB E ) is a communicative predicate-complex: a communicator (C1) communicates (COMM) communisator/interpreter ( * Q t ) given place ( * Q 1 to a (potential) (C ) at a given tlme in a ) the message TB. The elements of the norme b implicit representation of the text intension are definienda in the lexicon and the elements of the normed explicir repxsentation of the text intension are definientes in the lexicon. The task of the extensional semantic component is to assign possible extensional semantic interpretations to the possible in tensional semantic representations. LINGUISTICS: METHODS Linguistics and Artificial Intelligence Petr Sgall Centre of Numerical hiothemo~ics, Charles University, Prague Prague Bulletin of Moihemorical Linguisrics 24.9-33, 1975 (1) Winograd's approach to language has forced a reeval. ~tiotr of the relationship between the theory of competence and the study of performance, pragmatics, etc., though it is still wise to ack'nowledge the descri~ption of language as a relatively i~~dependent enterprise. (2) The use of lingi~istics descriptions in A1 provides a test for l~nguistic theories. (3) Winograd's "imperative form" of representing knowledge and semantics is more effective than one based entirely on deductive logic. Considerations of topic and focus, theme and rhemt., furictional sentence perspective, etc. are siniilnrly "imperative" in their (:niphasis or) the dirfrrcli t use^" which various iteriis of information in a comniunicntion hint.. (4) Wiriogr;ld's work, in his wav of ir~truducing new definitions in to the sen1311 tic cotnp~~nen t, sl~ggcsts that in m:lnmichine coniii~unication the burden of learning the other participant's 1anpu:lge niay be shiftable from m;ln to the cotnputer. (5) The significance of linguistics for Al is connected with making prosramming languages more and rnort. like NL':;. (6) The study of tense and time and the study of nega~ion illlou us to see how linguistic n~esning and non-linguistic content can be distinguished. LINGUISTICS: METHODS: MATHEMATICAL Formal PhiJosophy: Selected Papers of Richard Montague Richrnon H . Thomason. ed . University of Pirtsburgh Yale Universi~.y Press. New Haven. Connecticut. 1974 . ISBN 0-300-01527-5 HC: 112.39 Con tents Introduction. By Richard Thomason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 . Logical Necessity. Physical Necessity. Etl~ics. arid Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . 71 2 . 'That' (with Donald Kalish) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Pragmatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4 . Pragmatics and lntensional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . On the Nature of Certab Philosophical Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . English as a Formal Langvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . Universal Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . The proper Treatment of Quantificat'ion in Ordinary English 9 . A Paradox Regained (with David Kaplarl) . . . . . . 10 . Syntactical Treatments of Modality. with Corollaries on

Ref lexion Principles and Finite Axiornatimbility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 . Deterministic Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Works of Richard Montague. a Bibliography Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 361 COMPUTATION: PROGRAMMING More on In-Core Sort-Search Methods in PL/1 for Lexical Data Richard K. Brewer Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilonti SIGUSH Newsletter 8, No. 1:9-12, February 1975 Four procedures based on binary tree structilres aR presented alor~g with PL/1 code. 1) Sgmrnetric or inorder traversal (Knuth) exploits the powerful syntax of PL/1 in the i~se of modular code sr~d recursion. 2) Esplicit Stack (Knuth). 3) "Threading" 3 tree (PCrlis 81 Thornton) permits traversal without giving up space for either nn iniplicit or an explicit stack. 4) 'This technique requires an estim;~te oT outer bound for the sire of the list; by nllocntion of 3 fixed hinary nrrily at the outset the tree can be ci~nstructed by basing frcsh riodcs on progressively l~ipl~cr ele~iie~~ts in the array. COMPUTATION: PROGRAMMING SNOBOL4 Applications in Natural Language Research Ja~l~es L. Wyatt Floridn Slate Urriversitp, Tullahl~ssee SIGLASH Ne~osletf~r 8, No. 2-3312-19, April-June 1975 Topics discussed: 1) Pattern matching basics 2) the equals inark to create or alter character strings, 3) statement format. 4) INPUT and OUTPUT, 5) siniple programs. A sirnple prosram to count word frequencies in a text is described and discussed and 12 examples of output from student programs are given. COMPUTATION: PROGRAMMING: LANGUAGES Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 68 A. van Wijngaarden, B. J. Mailloux, J. E L. Peck, C. H. A. Koster, M. Sintzofl, C. H. Lindsey, L. G. L. T. Meertens, and R. G. Fisker, Eds, 1 nternalional Fed eralion /or inj'ormat ion Processing Acra ln formatica 5: 1-9236, 1975 Con tents Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - + . - 6 - . . * a 8

PART I: Prel iminrry Considerations 1. Language and metalanguage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2. The computer and the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 35

PART 11: Fundamental Constructions 3.Clauses . , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4. Declarations, declarers and indicators, 66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.Uni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . 77

PART I I I: Context Dependence

PART IV: Elaboration-independent constructions 8. Denotations . . . . * . . . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . . , , . . . 9. Tokens and symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . . , , . . . . .

PART V: Environment and Examples 10. Standard Environment . . , , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. Glossaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 113 209 COMPUTATION: PICTORIAL SYSTEMS 72 lnteracive Graphics on Intelligent Terminals in a Time-Sharing Environment W. K. Ciloi, and S. Savitt Universi~y of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 55455 J, Eucaruacao Fachbereich In~ormatirs, EG Graphiscke Do~enverarbeitung, Technische HoclrschuleDarmstadt, 0-6 1, Germany Acta In forn~atics 5:257+27 1, 1975 interactive graphics in n time-sharing environment shoilld be org;~nized in such a way that the user's activities are locally processed in order to avoid unaccept;lhly long response times. On the other hand, the host coiiiputcr ~iitrst be kept iriforiiied about Ihe user's actions and, ccnversrtly, the display file in [lie tcrminal has to be updated whenever the execution of the application progrilm causes a rlnnpe in the visi~al representation. In order to avoid the trtlnsn~ission of redundancy, the display file is deronlposed iriro two intersecting parts such that \he part in the host coniputrr and the other in the terniinal contains only the locally required information, i'he riecessarv communication between both parts is n~aintained by an information module generated on the base of a low-low-level intermediate language (L 4 ) and exchanged between coniputer an f terminal. Th~s lellds to the notion of an abstract terminal whose "machine language" is L , facilitating the implementation and portability of graphic programming systems. COMPUTATION: PICTORIAL SYSTEMS A Multilevel Modeling Structure for Computer Generated Graphical Symbol Design Chuan Lee M cDonnel-Douglas Astronautics Compa fly, Huntington Beach, California S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings af the First International Sj~rnposiurn on Cornpulers and Chinese l nput /Output Systems, Acad enlia Sinica, 387-406 A multilevel data structure has been developed to allow its use to construct graphical symbols on a automated d~afting machine. The implemented logic allows a user to define several sets of alphanumerical characters and graphical symbols in terms of three levels of tables for creating and retrieving the needed line segment strokes. It is believed that the same logic codd be applied to provide a solution to the computer output of Chinese characters. To call any desired Chinese tharacter as output, it is simply a matter of calling the character's legal designator within a particular library. COMPUTATION: PICTORIAL SYSTEMS 73 Interactive Graphical Data Analysis with Implementation of Chinese Characters Karen K. Yucn Deparrment of Biomothematics, University of Calijornia, Los Angeles S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First lnternafional Symposium on Computers and Chinese I npu 1 /Output Systems, Academia Sinica, 373-377 Treating Chinese characters as pictures we can display them on the screen without difficulty. Subroutines are written to generate each word or part of the word. On ttre input side, one

a light-pen on the appropriate part of the screen to choose which part of the program one wants to go to, e.h, go to next frame, delete this point, etc. A push of the designated function key switch will also convey inforn~ation. Chernoff proposed the napping of multidimensianal variables orito features of faces. Mouth, nose, eyes, facial contour, etc,, are modified in form and size to represent each vector of measurements, A,graphics program was written using this idea and extending it to provide the histogram comparison and interactive classification of individual cases. can use DOCUMENTATION Two Major Flaws in the CODASYL DDL 1973 and Proposed Corrections G. M. Nijssen Conrrol Dura Europe, 46, Avenue des Arts, 8-1040, Brussels, Belgium In formation Systems l:f 15-132, 1975 In a schema dtten in CODASYL DDL 1973 it is syntactically correct to describe an entity either by declaring a data,item in the record of the entry or by declaring a CODASYL set type in which the record, describing the entity, is a member record. This is a major flaw because extension of a database or integration of two existing-databases will then lead to either reprogramming or inconsistency, or both. The flaw can be corrected by 'requiring that all attributes are represented as a dab item in the (Ingical) schema. In the CODASY L DDL 1973, there are five places to optionally declare a record identifier and four of these five places are not in the rncord but in the CODASYL set type. Declaring record identifiers therefore results in fairly complex and non-orthogonal declarations. This could be simplified by abondoning tjtese five places and by introducing a record identifier clause in the record type entry. For integrity reasons it is necessary to require that at least one record identifier is declared in every fecord type entry. The previous two corrections will make is possible to design a CODASY L set selection clause. still providing the same functional capabilities. The corrected DDL is functionally equivalent, yet offers more data independence, is simpler and more orthogonal. Examples are given. DOCUMENTATION The Definition of Concepts Fred W. Riggs Universify of Hawoii Occasional Paper No. 6, international S~udies Association, University Center [dr lnternationol Studies, University of Pittsburglr, 39-76, 1975 Definitions should exploit the distinction between de finiendu~n and dc finiens. The def iniens designates a concept in context while the definiendum defines the concept wirhout dopertdence on context. The definiendum of one concept X1 may appear as a term in the definiens of another concept X2, thus permitt~ng recursive construction of defin~tions. A machine based archive of soc~al science concepts is proposed in which the core element of each entry will be a definition copied from relevant scholarly writings. Each entry will :ilso contain: a) a possible translation of the definition into English and into fornial precise language b) specification of related terms and relevant theoretical context, c) docu~neiitation of the source OF the difinition, d) name of the contributor, e) anything else which secnls appropriate. Terms found in the new Thesaurus of the American Political Science Associ;l\ion will be r~sed from the beginning with later additions as needed. The project will be administered through the Information Utilization Laboratory at the University of Pittsbcrgh. DOCU~ENTATION: CLASSIFICATION Word' Segmentation by Letter Suctessor Varieties Margaret A. Hafer, add Stephen F. Weiss Deparrmenr of Cornpuler Scienqe, Uniarsify of North Caroiina, Chapel Hill 1 n formation Sf orage and Retrieval 10:371-385, 1974 Within a word, the ith letter is to solfie degree dependent on the i-1 letters that precede it. Taking advantage of this, successor and predecessor letter variety counts are used to indicate where words should be divided. Four segmentation strategies are used: a) Cutoff, b) Peak and plateau, c) Complete word, d) Entropy. Experiments have been run testin2 the machine implementation of 'various combinations of of these strategies. A technique involving whole word word segmentation techniques and ciltoff points on successor and predecessor counts was chosen for use in information retrieval experiments. The information retrieval results obtained are virtually identical to those obtained with the more manually oriented forms of stemming. DOCUMENTA I IUN: CLASSIFICATION Application of Minimum Spanning Trees to Information Storage R. C. T. Lee, and C. L. Chang Heuristics Laboratorv, Division of Computer Research ant! Teclrnology, National Instifvtes of H~alrh, Depor/nlenf ! a H eolth, Education, ar~d Wtljbre, Iler hesda, Marylarld S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the Firsr 1 nternlllional Symposium bn Computers ond Chinese inpuf/0ufput Systems, Academia Sinica, 1245- 1256 The use of niinin~um spanning trees allows efficient storage of information but permitting information which is redundant across similar items to be stored at only one point in the system. Let the distance between two points be a function of the number of changes of values between these two points. A minimum spanning tree cor~tains a11 the points and is such that its rots1 sun) of distances is n niinimuni anlong all such possible trees. Examples discussed: clnssification of anitnals based on aniino acid sequences, voting records of countries in the UN, Applications to Chinese characters are discussed. DOCUMENTATION: RETRIEVAL An Efficient Retrieval Method for a Hierarchical Fact-Retrieval System and its Evaluation Fujio Nishid:~, and Shinobu Takanlntsu Faculty o/ Engineering, Unirersi~y of Osaka Prefecture, Sakai-shi, 591 Japan Systems-Computers-Conlrol 6, No. 1.92-60, 1975 A fact-retrieval system consisting of a data base, axiom set and inference system can deduce answers to questions by combining a certain number of facts. A predicate symbol followed by a series of constant terms or variable terms and its complement is a literal. A literal without variable terms is a ground literal. A. clause is a logical sum of literals. A hierarchical fact-retrieval system is stvdied by viewing data as a set of clauses, each of which consists of a ground literal. Concrete fact-retrieval is assumed not to contain function symbols by limiting the objective. Under such condition efficient procedures- are given for: 1) retrieving constant terms by specifying predicate symbois and part of the constant terms and. 2) retrieving predicate syn~bols and the remaining constant terms by specifying part of the constant terms. Futhermore, the number of comp:risons, which is the criterion for the retreival time in each procedure, is examined analytically and experimentally. DOCUMENTATION: RETRIEVAL A Linguistic Approa~h to lnforrnation Retrieval--1 Petr Syall, and Eva Hajicova Cent re o/ Numerical Mat hemo fics, Charles University, Prague Infirmation Storage and Retrieval 10:411-4/7, 1974 The. system should consist of: 1) the brain, which organizes the whole repertory of data. 2) the analysis, which takes, as its input, text and qlreslions in NL mixed with formal notations, and presents, as output, disambiguated translations in a language the brain can directly use, and 3) the synthesis, translating the answers delivered by the brain into the appropriate NL. The representation of the sentence on the ~ectuyranimaticnl level (the artifical language) has the form of a dependency graph, with the verb as its root. i l ie pi~rticip;ints of the verb are ordered according to: 1) an inherent order of participants detern~ined by the language system, 2) topiciilizat~on and comlnt~nicative dynamism, 3) rilles of grammar. The semantic representation is marked ns to which elements are contextu3lly bound a13d which are not. The verb always stands between its con textually bound and contextually non- bound participants. DOCUMENTATION: RETRIEVAL A Linguistic Approach to lnf ormation Retrieval - -11 Petr Sga11, Jitrn~ila. I'ancvova, and Sva tnva Machova Centre of Nun~erical M othematics, Charles University, Prague Information Processing and Management 11:147-153, 1975 Synthesis of Czech in MT. The generative component is a context-free phrase structure and uses modifying, subs~itutional and selectional rules. The right-hand side of the rules cannot contain more than two non-terminal symbols. I'here are recursive rules. The order of application is determined by the form of the rule itself (by a selection of non-terminal synibols). The rules are not distinguished as obligatory and optional ones. The translation of the semantic representation to the graphemic level proceeds in two steps. First, the semantic representation is translated into a surface syntactic level, and this is then (secondly) translated into a morphemic representation. The sequence of computer programs is based on the formal pattern of pushdown transducers. TRANSLATION Some Computer Functions for Machine- Aided Translation J. Mathias GETA Group, USA. S. Gould, Ed., Proce~dings of the Firs{ Internai-ionol Sy~npusiurn on Computers and Chinese 1 nput /Output Systems, Acaden~ia Sinica, 58 9-592 The experimental computer configurations use alphanumeric input by keyboard (and simulation of graphic input). Both systems depend on retrieval from a glossary file of Chinese characters with English meanings and a cross r~ference file of characters containing transliterations. The first set of colnputer function, pi~t together is based on itie prime method of input by alphanumeric keyboard and graphic output for displaying Chinese characters. The most important of these is the segmenting function, which is capable of searching the glossary file for meanings for each iridividual char:lcler and, for sets of contiguous characters in the query string. The system has two indexing functions: partial telecode indexing and Pin Yin indexing, l'he second set of coniputer aid functions are based on input by Pin Yin romanization. The opentor con type in the Pin Yin spelling (without tone) for a query of up to seven characters in length and the system searches the glossary file for all terms that fit the Pin Yin. This method is effective only for con~pound queries. TRANSLATION Mechanical Translation Between English and Japanese Shigehrru Sugita Dtparrrnenr of Informotion Science, Kyoto University, Yoshida Sokyo-Ku, Japan S. Guuld, Ed., Proceedings ~) !!be j Firs1 I~~rernational Sy~trposiurn on Computers and Chinese input /Output Systems, Acad kmia Si:vica, 555-572 Phrase structun: grammar is supposed for both English and Japanese. and a syntax to syntax translation by ~rdered context-free grammar is adopted which concerns word order exchange and insertion and deletion of auxiliary particles, and does not concern the semanticit1 aspect of translation words. The niain part of the algorithm. syntax analysis and synthesis. is carried out by using context-free type rewriting rules. These rules are classified into several hierarchies and there exist priorities in each hierarchy whel~ rules are used. Program and linguistic data are separated as much as possible, so that a change of grammar does not affect the main program. Therefore the program size becomes very small: about 1500 statements in assembler language. The word dictionary contains SO00 head words and the grammar table contains about 900 rewriting rules. This translation system can in principle a cw any complex structure, and about 70% of sentences from scientific or technological papers are analyzed correctly from the syntactical point of view. Results of English into Japanese translation can be spoken through speaker by voice synthesizer. SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 79 Tower of Babel: On- the Definition and Analysis of Concepts in the Social Sciences Ciovanni Sartori University o j Florence Fred W. Riggs University of Hawaii Henry Teune Universit? of Pennsylvania Occasional Paper No. 6, lntefinational Studies Association, Urriversity Center for Internotional Studies, Universify of Pitrsburgh, Pennsylvanio, 1975 Con tents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction: Toward the Mastery of Obstacles to Conceptual Clarity

1. Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. A Broad Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1) conceptualization; 2) hierarchies; 3) the "paradigm" level

3. Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4. Next Steps: Plans and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Chapter 1: The Tower of Babel, Giovanni Sartori

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) the loss of etymological anchorage; 2) the loss of historical anchorage; 3) the

loss of mninstrerl~n discourse; 4) novitisin; 5) the freezing of language; 6) the

cards and the game; 7) counteract; ng chaos; 8) the paradigm-model juncture

2. Concepts. Words, Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) which is the start? 2) language and thinking; 3) the impact of words; 4) the

neo-Baconian start

3. Conceptual Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) terms as concepts and terms in sentences; 2) logical systematizing; 3) analysis

by classification; 4) vertical classification; 5) rules of transformation along a

ladder of abstraction; 6) an illustration; 7) concepts as data containers; 8)

theory poor and data chcated

4. Measurements and Quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) the broad meaning; 2) the narrow meaning; 3) kinds and degrees; 4)

objections; 5) pros and cons; 6) quantities of what? 7 15 21 SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 5. Applied Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, Hindthoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter Two: The Definition of Concepts, Fred W. Riggs 6. A Concept Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of definitions; . . . . . . . definition of 5) the origin formation; 8) SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 1) an open archive; 2) sources of concept definitions: 3) priorities for concept selection. 4) inventory financing; 5) retrieval technology; 6) inventory utilization; 7) long-term strategies Chapter Three: On The Analysis of Concepts, Henry Teune 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Science and Pl~ilosophy of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1) divergence between philosophy and science: 2) the role of philosophy of stience; 3) inadequacy of pl~ilosophy of science for social science; 4) sollie reasons for the inadequacy 3. Concepts and Uef initions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) meanings of concepts: 2) value concepts; 3) logical concepts; 4) empirical

concepts; 5) definitions and concepts 4. Evaluating Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) criteria for evaluating concepts. 2) empirical precision; 3) theoretical

importance; 4) relationship between empirical precision and theoretical

relevance 5. Composition Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) simple and complex definitions: 2) the structure gf con~position rules; 3) the

theoretical importance of composition rules; 4) empirical limits on the use of

composition rules 6. Object Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) the nature of object concepts: 2) importance of object concepts in the social

sciences: 3) the cutting edge of object definitions; 4) object definitions and near

tautologies. 5) relationships between object and property concepts 7. Types of Object Concepts: Aggregated Systems and Levels . . . . . . . . . . .

1) various meanings of levels; 2) object concepts and generality; 3) classes of

objects; aggragates; 4) systems and classec of systems 8. Differentiating Types of Property Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) according to fun:tion: 2) according to theory: 3) according to the structure

of definition; 4) acmrding to the characteristics of the objects: 5) according to

properties: 6) according to the nature of the composition rule; 7) some

miscellaneous types of concepts 9. Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1) measurement contrasted with definitions; 2) measurement languages, SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 82 operations, and statements: 3) two types of measurement; 4) two traditions d measurement; 5) indicators 10. A Concluding Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Conclusion, Fred W. Riggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 'This chapter has been abstracted in the Docurnentation section of this fiche. SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE: ANTHROPOLOGY On Binary Categories and Primary Symbols: Some Rotinese Perspectives Janics J. Fox Harvard University Rov Wiliis, en., The lnterprerotion of Symbolism, Halsred Press Division John Wiley & sdns., 1975, 99-132. lS BN 0-470-94920-1 HC: $17.75 Rotinese chants are ordered by extensive parallelism. Each opposition in the Rotinese ritual language is a dyadic set. Some terms may appear in Inore than one dyadic set. Tracing relations among these semantic elements involves chains and cycles alorlg the edges of a symmetric graph. The analysis of 5000 lines of verse has yielded a dictionary of the ritual language consisting of 1000+ dyadic sets over 1400 entries. By concentratir~g on elements included in 5 or more dyads (the frequency cutoff is somewhat arbitrary) and with at least 2 links in common a core set of 21 entries is identified. The core includes directional coordinates, words for earth', 'water', 'rock , and 'tree" terms for plants and plant-parts, body parts, and a peculiar collection of verbs of position involving ideas of balance, border, ascent, and descent. This corc has been it~vestigated using cluster analysis programs. SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE: PSYCHOLOGY On the Complexity of Causal Models R. R. Gaines Mun- M achines Systems Laboratory, Dtpartment oJ Electrical Engineering Science, University of Essex, Colchester, England IEEE Transactions o/ Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 636-59, January 1976 The prin,ciple of causality is fundamental to human thinking. It has been observed experimentally that causal thinking lends to complex hypothesis formation by humall subjects attempting to solve comparatively simple problems involvirly acausal randon11 y generated. The assumption of causality in modeling acausal systems leads to meaningless models that cannot reflect any stochastic structure present. This correspondence provides un automatatheoretic explanation of this phenomenon by analyzing the performance of an optimal modeler observitlg tile behavior of a system and forming a minimal-stale model of it. SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE: PSYCHOLOGY Computer-Determined Readability Profiles David M. Locke Illinois 1 nstitute of Technology, Chicago Alan K. Stewart Illinois lnsritute of Technology Research Institute, Chicago SlGLASH Newsletter 8, No. 4:8-12, October 1975 The readability measure is based on sentence length in words and word length in alphanumeric characters. The program measures readability on paragraphs and paragraph blocks and proceeds paragraph by paragraph, cumulating data on analyst assigned blocks and over the entire passage. Paragraphs can be skipped if necessary. An example of the program's operation is given. SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE: PSYCHOLOGY Computer Simulation of a Language Acquistion System: A First Report John R. Anderson Human Performance Center, University of hiichigan Roberr 1. Solso, Ed., Ir~forrniition Processirrg and Cogrlition: Tht7 l.o~.ola S~~nrp~sium, John Wiley & Sons, 295-349, 1975 LA$ (Language Acquistion System) is an interactive program which accepts as input lists of words, which it treats as sentences, and scene descriptions encoded in a variant of the HAM propositional language. It utilizes an ~ugmrnted transition netuorl, ~rapinisr (Woods) for both parsing and ~enern~ion. Tlie SPEAk progrllm starts with n HAhl nctrrork of proposi[ions tsgxd as to-be-spoken and a topic of sentence. SI'EAK uses a deplh-first strategy to fiild a pat11 in theb parsitlg network which c;ln he used to generate the requested sentence. In the IJNDEKS'TAND ptogranl it is necesarv. when one pi~th through the network fails, to consider the possibility that the failure nlny he in a parsing of 3 s i r called on that path and to go back into the nctwork to attenipt a differen1 pming. In ocquistion, BKAKET is an algorithrrl for taking a sentrnce of in arbitrary I;lngu;~$e and a HAM conceptual structure and producing a bracketin: of the srnteKcc that indicates i~ surface slructure. This surface structure pr3scrihrs the hirrnrchy of networks required to parse the sentence. After BRACKET is conlpirte. SPEAKTEST is isllcd to lest uhrther its grammar is capable of generating a sentence and, if it is not, appropiatel! to modify the grarnmlr so that it can. A list is kept of all networks crrclted by SPEAKTEST; GENERALIZE is ,!,en called to determine which networks are identical. At present LAS operates in a highly restricted semantic domain, but a more challenging domain is planned for future work. SOCIAL-BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE; PSYCHOLOGY: LEARNING A Mathematical Theory of Learning Transformational Grammar Henry H;~~~~burgcr, end licniicth Wrslcr Sclroo/ a f Sociill Services, lhriversity o J Cul ifurniu, lrvine Journal of dlatilert~aticol Ps!~*lrology 1?:137-177, 1975 The language-learning theory has four interrelated. aspects: (a) the class, G, of possible grammars, (b) the kind. I, of information made available to the learner. (c) the languagelearning procedure, P, and (d) the criterion, C, of success. The theory must deduce a guarantee that the correct member. g, of G can be discovered by applying procedure P to information of type 1 about g. The sense in which g is "discovered" milst be made precise by a formal criterion C, and the proof must hold for arbitrary g in G. The system presented converges: that is, the learning process learns the language to a formal criterion. The claim that the theory is reasonable rests on the plausibility of G, I, P. and C. G the class of all TG's. Each element of I is a sentence coupled with its underlying structure. The procedure P doesn't require explicit menlory for past data and must acquire the ability to map each phrase-marker (akin to meaning) to the apprclpriate surface structure. HUMANITIES 85 Open-Ended Application of Information Processing Techniques in the Humanti ties Richard S. Thill, and Jerry L. Ray University o/ Nebraska, Omoha SICLASH Newletler 8, No. 2-3:7-11, April-June 1975 A system to store, manipulate, and retrieve lin~stically structured material in interactive usage has been applied to the poetic corpus of tleine. The system can: 1) present word occurrence frequently lists alphabetically and by frequency, 2) is prov.ided with a table of contents about material stored on the tape, 3) has a word occurrence index with volume (in the printed edition) and page references and frequency of occurrence. 4) provide key word occurrence lists--the researcher lists words or stenis of interest (and receives a list of contexts with volume, page, and line numbers, 5) provide a cllronological histognni--researcher specifies term or terms for exnniination and is given a grnphic display of varintiorl in word class frequency through time. Applications to CAI, Bi bliognphy, and Reference materials are being developed. HUMANITIES The Computer and Creativity Jay A. Leavitt University of Minnesoiu, Minneapolis Allen R. Hanson Hampshire College, Amherst, Mossachuseii~ SlGLlSH Newsleuer, 8, No. 4:4-7, October 1975 Though the computer itself cannot be considered creative, the artist can use the computer in 2 modes: 1) as an active device contributing through simulation, to the final artistic product..and 2) passively, like a ton1 to be nianipt~lated by the user. Once we think we understand the structure of a class of objects under consideration. that is, how the parts making up the whole are interrelated, we can actively use this information and the random dement to "create" objects similar to those being studied. Wandering in mist Reaching out to soft sunlight Bl ue-scaled dragons pause. HUMANITIES: CONCORDANCE Sasanian Pahlavi - Inscriptions: A Concordance J. A. Moyne Department of Computer Science, Queens College, Depart men1 of Linguistics, Graducate Cenrer of rht City University of New York Cornpulers and the Humanities 8, 27-39, /974 The collected volume contains all the known inscriptions in Pahlavi or Middle Persian of the Sasanian era (A.D. 226 to A.D. 651). The collection of 21 inscriptiolis was t~ansliterated and punched on 718 IBM cards used as input for the concordance program, which produced the following output material: 1) r complete listing of the tests on the inscriptions, each separated under its heading, 2) Two alpnbrtized concordanres~ gener~lted from all inscriptions which ;Ire trei~ted os one text, one for Pahlavi and orle for Aramaic words, 3) Two illdices or listings (onr for Pahlnvi, one for Araniaic) produced for ttir words in the iript~t corpus with . . line references following each word. 1 his general-purpose roncordntice and texl-processing computer program can be used for sirnil~lr productions for any text in any language for which a suitable transliteration convention is available. Examples. HUMANITIES: ANALYSIS Pericles and the Question of Structural Unity T, R. Waldo Universir)~ of Florida, Gaiasville SICLASH Newsletfer 8, Nos. 2-3:22-27, April-Jwre 1975 The analysis of Pericles by computer establishes the organic function of ideas clustered around themes of chance (external forces operating on man), with 927 occurrences, and choice (humanly controllable forces), with 979 occuFrences. An occurrence table indicates. quantity of occbrrence. distribution of themes through scenes, and proportion of occurrence of a theme~-defined in terms of the percentage of words in scene with 3 certain classification symbol (a theme indicator) divided by the percentage of words of that class in the play as a whole. The use of the thematic profile must be supplemented with conyentional techniques of literary analysis. HUMANITIES: ANALY SlS Mathematical Theory of Free Rhythm Evzen Kindler Deportmen1 of Marhematical In jbrmatics, Faculty of Mot hematics and Physics, Charles Universir.~, Prague, Cze.choslovakio Free rhythm is that used in ancient Greek and Latin prose and in the music of the early Middle Ages in Europe. An elementary arsis(AE) is an elementary time value plus an upbeat an elementary thesis(TE) is one or two elementary time values plus a downbeat. An elementary rhythm(RE) FTf . A simple rhythm consists of a simple arsis (not [he same as an elementary ars~s) followe Is: A by a siii~ple thesis. Khythnis may be recursively composed of other rtlythrns to form a phrase(K). A phrase is ;I result of the t~igtiest rhy~htiiical synthesis of the elementary time values while the ordering of phrases is no more an affair of rhythm but of stylistic form. A gr:lmmnr of free rhythm is an ordered 4-tuplet: G -- (V,41, K, S), where V is a set of 6 terminal svnibols. V1 is a set of 13 auxiliary synlhols. K is a member of V and is the initial symbol, and S is a set of 21 production rules. A modified grarnmnr(G*) 1 , as 5 terminal symbols, 6 auxiliary symbols, and 13 prodtictioh rilles, but offers an equivalent rhythmic synthesis. An allorithni is given to complete texts generated by G* and tr;lnsForm them into texts generated by G. HUMANITIES: ANALYSIS roving Musical Theorems I: The Middleground of Heiniich Schenker's Theory of Tonality Michael Kasslcr Bassrr Deparrment of Cornpuler Science, School of Physics, The University of Sydney Technical-Reporf No. 107, Augusf 1975 Schen ker's theory of tonality asserts that every composition that is an instance of tonality can be derived from one of three Ursaetze' (background) by the successive application of a small number of rules of inference called 'prolon~ation techniques' (middle~round). Harmonic: rhythmic, melodic, dynamic. etc. details belong to the foreground stage of derivation. Thea middleground rules for the major mode involve two formalized lan_eus~es, S1, which has 11 inference rules (corresponding to Schenker's prolongation techniques), and S2. with 5 inference rules. S1 governs dilyneor compositions (a lyne being one musical voice) and has three primitive axioms, while S2 governs irilvnear conipositions and contains an axiom structure which relstes the systems S1 and S2. The decision procedure provides one proof for any given theorem (i.e composition) rather than all possible proofs. At the middle level it seems that alternative minimal proofs in no way demonstrate a semar~tically important ambiguity. though the situation is likely to change significantly with the explication of foreground structures. HUMANITIES: ANALYSIS Rhythmic Variation in the Use of Time References Jan Svartvik Universi~y of Lund Naken Rirrgbom, Ed., Style and Text, Sprokforloge~ Skripzor AB, Stock holm, 4 16-432, 1975 lSBN 91-7282-095-0 A study of time references in James D. Watson's The Double Heh reveals that they occur rhythmically throughout the book, which has 29 chapters. If one graphs the percentage of time references per chapter against chaprer numbers, the resultant cllrve has five peaks (Chapters 1, 8, 15. 22. and 29) with six chapters between successive peaks. There are four troughs (Chapters 2. 10, 17. and 25). The first and last gaps between the boughs covar seven chapters each while the niiddle gap covers six chapters. A siuiilar rhythmic virrintion in time reference usage appears ill the paragraph structure wi tllin indivi J ual chapters. INSTRUCTION Computer -Assisted Tutorial in College Mathematics J, L, Caidwell Department uJ htatlrematics, University oj IYisconsin-River Fulls, 54022 Douglas Polley Deportment OJ hlathemorics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 55455 Cornpulers and People 24; No. 12:22-23, December 1975 The programs deal with quadratic equations and equations of straight lines. The student, seated at n teletype, receives a probleni with ramdornly chosen parameters. The student then solves the problem and enters his solution. If his solution agrees with the computer's solution, then another problem is presented. If the student's solution is incorrect the computer then works the problem incorrectly in several different ways, each time checking its answer against the student's. If a match is obtained. then the computer suggest that the student has made a certain error and asks him to try again. If none of the incorrect answers match the student's answtr, then the computer will check the student's work step by step. If a student requires detailed solutions to several problems, he is asked to contact the insttuctor. INSTRUCTION 89 Computer Applicability in a Programmed Instruction System for Chinese/ Japanese Characters Benjamin K. T'sou, and Yat-Shing Cheung Linguistics Depariment, V ni versily o/ California, Son Diego S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings of the First lnterna~ional S)lmposium on Cornpulers and Chinese Inpuf/Ou~put Systems, Academia Sinica, 641 -650 The set of video equipment consists of a video recorder withJ T.V. monitor, a specially modified camera and an electronic interphase device called the Genloc System. The camera is installed under the monitor in a cabinet and aims at a piece of translucent glass fitted onto a protruding panel. The student places a piece of paper on top of the glass and practices writing by copying the model on the screen. The system h:~s three basic components: 1) Display, 2) In pi11 of instractional materinl, which is organized into three disti~~ct phases, and 3) Studqnt mput. When the student turns the switch for the Concurrent Displ;ly Mode, the character produced by him will be superimposed onto the instroctor produced character and concurrently displayed on the screen. In the simulated compirter aided sysle~n, the Concurrent Display Mode will be monitored not only by the student, but also by a research assistant through a remote monitoring unit. The research assistant will do what a computer would be expected to do. INSTRUCTION Teaching and Learning Chinese in a Computer Environmenl Susan Poh The MITRE Corporation, Westgale Research Park, Aicjkan, Virginia S. Gould, Ed., prvcredings of the First lnternotional Symposium on Computers and Chinese Inpur/Ourput + ~~sic~tns, Academicl Si~ica, 6 17-6.39 People in Wesun civilization encounter great difficulty when attempting to learn the Chinese language. The major difficulties seem to be due to the non-alphabetic. non-phonetic and pictorially-structured characters. The system described applies computers and computer graphics to teach the Chinese ideogram in a systematic, simple and effective manner. A set of LOGO procedures are defined which draw simple strokes and then these procedures are used as primitive commands to construct ideograms on a CRT. one stroke at a time. Five demonstration courseware lessons are discussed to illustrate the teaching methodology. INSTRUCTION Computer Aided Instruction in Chinese Characters, Il -Implementation Shang-Chun Chen, and Henry Y. H. Chunng Computer Syslerns Laboratory, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri S. Gould, Ed., Proceedirrgs of the Firsi Iniernatio~~ul Symposium on Co~nprrters and Chinese Input /Ourput Systems, Academic Sinica, 605-6 16 In character coding for display, the system uses a method based on "piecewise linear approximation" The procedure for stroke recognition ltas three steps: 1) Tralisfor~n the stroke code into a "direction sequence". 2) Tritnsform the direction sequence into "major direction sequence". 3) Identify the stroke type by processing the major direction sequence with an automaton. The structure of a character can be unnrnbiguously described as a context-free grammar with sirokes BS the terniinal elcnients of the gmnlnlnr. The nonterininuls include 'units' and 'components'. A unit consists of a group of closely related strokes and conipotirnts consist of two units or of two snialler colnponents. B;lsed on this structure, the computer builds a strclcturrd base for error analysis. This base consists of 3 set of rel:ition niatrices, one for each production of its grammar. Error detection proceeds by comparing entries in the relation matrices of the model character with those of the character written by the student. INSTRUCTION Cornputel Aided l~istruction in Chinese Characters, I--The System Chuang Henry Y. ti., and Shnng-Chun Chen Cornpurer Systems La bora/ory, Il'ashington Unijlersity, St . Louis, Missouri S. Gould, Ed., Proceedings oJ the Firsi Inte0national Symposi~rrn on Cornpulers and Chinese Inpuz/Ourput Sysrems, Academia Sirlica, 599 603 The syslem functions completed so far include: 1) Teach the pronounciations, meanings, and the written form of characters, as well as how to write them, 2) Gtride the writing, stroke by stroke, with or without information regarding the relative size and position of the strokes, 3) Manilor the student's writing to assist the student in correcting mistakes by himself, and 4) Pna/yze the stodent's writing and then indicate errors and how to improve. BRAIN THEORY Brains, Robots, and the Evolution of Language Michael Arbib Deparrment of Computc~r and information Science, Universiv of Massachuse~ts, Amherst Technical Report 74C-2, 40 pp. For inieracting he with the world animals and robots need a spatical framework, the ability to segment world into chunks, and long-term and ghort-term models of the world. The ability to see what objects are in the world and to interact appropriately with the world is shared by all animals. Language is not a magic sepatate device to be explained by fornial grammars, but is rather an ability which evolved naturally out of our ability to pe~ceive the world. The child's acquisition of language builds on his cognitive c:rp:icities and uses a strategy in wliich he reconstructs sentences according to his own rules and proceeds by finetunirig of linguistic structures. A distrtbuted inforniatiori processing ninchine (DIPM) is suggested as a theoretical lnodel in which the logic functions of the machilie are distributed and not centralized. Consequently no single center exists in which damage could lead to the breakdown of the whole machine. The cybernetic study of language needs a theoretical language which encompasses A1 work and brain theory. BRAIN THEORY Artificial Intelligence and Brain theory: Unities and Diversities Michael A. Arbib Conlputer and Ioforrna!ion Science Depcrtmenl, Center for Systenls Neuroscience, University ol ~Vassochusefts, Aniherst Teclrnical Reporr 7SC-6, 62 pages, September 1975 In the control of nlovement, Al offers insight into ovzr?ll planning of behavior: while control theory enables BT (Brain Theory) to model feedback and feedforward adjustments by the spinal cord brainstem and cerebcllum. A schema is an internal representation of an 'object' and comprises inpi$-marching routines, action routines, and competition and cooperation routinel. The internal representatioo of the world is then given by a 'collage' of tuned and activated schemas. A number of studies in Al aod BT are discussed which offer hope of a unified theory of competition and cooperation within a single subsj~stem. We then turn to the modelling of a set of brain regions as a cooperative compu~ation system--a distributed structure in which each system has its own 'goal structure' for selecting information to act on from its environment, and for transmitting the results to suitable receivers. Finally we sample Al studies of speech understanding. Of particular interest is work by the CarnegieMellon Hearsay group on n system using a network of PDP ll's, each functioning as a knowledge source, which interact through a communication center called a blackboard rather than being controlled by an executive. ROBOTICS Robot Svstems James S. Albus, and John M. Evans, Jr. Office of Developmenral Automalion and Conforol Technology, Narionol Bureau of Standards Scienrific American 234, No. 2, 77-868, February 1976 Each level in a robot's control hierarchy accepts commands from the next higher level and responds by issuing ordered sequences of comniands to the next lower level, making use of sensory feedback to close control loops where they are appropriate. At each level feedback signals are sent to the next higher level and other feedback signals are recei~ed from below. These signals indicate the sbte of the rnnnipul:~tor and the environment. The type of feedback needed depends strorigly on the degree of uncertl~inty encountered in the environment. Large urlccr ninties in the robot's world require thlrt the upper levels of control structure incorporate a "world modeli' wliicti can represent the state of the etwironn~rnt in a meaningful way. When such a robot (e.g. SRl's /Shaky) is faced with an input command to be executed, it tries to set up a hypottletical desired world niodtll and then procedures that can convert the existing world nlodel into the desired one. industrial robots and experimental approaches to machine vision are briefly to devise a set of

Various types of discussed. American Journai of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 50 : 93 NEW JOURNAL C A H I E R S DU GROUPE DE TRAVAIL ANALYSE ET EXPERIMENTATION DAN LES S IENCES DE L HOMME PAR LES METHODES INFORMATI QUE CONTENTS Programme des travaux du groupe de travail Suites aleatoires selong Kolmogorof et Martin-Lof par Luts Farinas Informatique et Sciences Humaines: les enseignements d'un colloque par P. Cibois Nouvelles breves ADDRESS Laboratoire d ' Informatique pour les Sciences de 1 'Homme 31, Chernin Joseph-Aiguier 13274 Marseille - Cedex 2 France The Groupe de Travail is attached to AFCET; Division Theorie et Techniques +e 1 ' Informati-que. American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 50 : 94 B I B L I O G R A P H Y AND SUB JEC T I N D E X C U R R E N T C O M P U T I N G L I T E R A T U R E Sections: Citations Author index Subj ect ir lex by Computing Reviews categories Coverage: Address: Price : Keyword (pmuted title) index Reviews and abstracts published in Computing Reviews during 1974 (annual publication) Association for Computing Machinery P. 0. Box 12105 Church Street Station New York, New York 10249 $10 for ACM Members $25 for others American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 50 : 95 A D M I N I S T R A T I V E D I R E C T O R Y Author: John W , Hamblen and students University of Missouri, Rolla Entries: Contents: Address : Price: 300 computer science departments 900 computer centers

societies and government agencies Name of chairman or director; address Degree programs Computing equipment ACM Order Department P, 0. Box 12105 Chr~rch 5treet Station New York, New York 10249 $5 for ACll members and those listed in the Directory $7.50 for others Z'OO pages American Journal of Computational Linguistics Microfiche 50 : 96 P R I V A C Y , S E C U R I T Y , ANDTHE I N F O R M A T I O N P R O C E S S I N G INDUSTRY Author: Dahl A. Gerberick, Chairman Ombudsman Committee on Privacy Los Angeles Chapter of ACM Topics : Address: Price: Administrative, technological, and legal considerations Guidelines for implementation Comprehensive Right to Privacy Bill Privacy Act of 1974 Data Center Security Check List Glossary of Terms Bibliography ACM Order Department P. 0. Box 12105 Church Street Station New York, New York 10249 $9.00 for ACM members $12.00 for others